
7.^- 



.X^' 



* -9 S ■ < 



"1^ . ^• ■•' /. C' \' 



-y.__ ^8 , N" \\^ -, 











-• 



•■> 












'\ 



« 'b- 






.s <> 



JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH MONOGRAPHS 

B. R. BUCKINGHAM, Editor 
Number 1 October, 1923 



The Use of Psychological Tests in the 
Educational and Vocational Guid- 
ance of High School Pupils 

(REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION) 



BY 



WILLIAM MARTIN PROCTOR 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION 
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 



PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY 

BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS 






Copyright 1921 by 

Public School PubUshing Co. 

Bloomington, Illinois 



DEC 31 *23 



C1A765504 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

Editor's Introduction 5 

I. Introduction 11 

II. Psychological Tests as a Means of Measuring the Probable 

School Success of High-School Pupils 15 

III. Use of Psychological Tests in the Educational Guidance 

of High-School Pupils 29 

IV. Status of One Hundred Thirty-one Cases, Tested with Stan- 

ford Revision of Binet Scale, and Followed up for Period 

of Six Years 43 

V. Use of Psychological Tests in the Vocational Guidance of 

High-School Pupils 63 

VI. Relation of General Intelligence to the Persistence of Edu- 
cational and Vocational Plans of High-School Pupils 78 

VII. Psychological Tests and College Entrance ' 91 

VIII. Intelligence Tests as a Means of Admitting Special Students 

to Colleges and Universities 105 

Appendix 115 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

When Professor Terman's book on The Intelligence of 
School Children appeared, it became evident that Leland Stan- 
ford Junior University was the center of a surprisingly extensive 
investigation of human mentality. It was clear that records were 
being made, not once, but repeatedly, with reference to the same 
children and that many of these children were being kept under 
observation throughout their school careers and even beyond. In 
other words, the common curse of our educational inquiries, in 
virtue of which nothing is studied hard enough and long enough 
to reach fundamental results, seemed to have been lifted from 
the eiiforts of the Stanford group of men and women. 

One of the members of the Stanford group is Dr. William M. 
Proctor, the author of this book. He has given particular atten- 
tion to high-school pupils and to underclassmen in college and it 
is to these groups that he has applied his tests. 

These tests are for the most part such as may be given to 
large numbers of persons simultaneously. Instruments of this 
kind have been appropriately called group tests, in contradistinc- 
tion to the individual or interview tests in the use of which an 
examiner handles only one person at a time. The history of the 
development of these group tests to their present status has been 
sketched in a number of places. It is generally and correctly 
understood that the prototype of all the present group intelli- 
gence tests is the collection of examinations loosely termed the 
Army Tests. 

From the Army Tests, either in direct descent or by collat- 
eral branches, has sprung a large progeny in the form of group 
intelligence scales or tests. The use of these tests has already be- 
come enormous. To a certain extent the persons who have de- 
vised them have become victims of this popularity. When the 
school people will buy and use these tests by the millions, there 
is a temptation for authors to rush them into print without suffi- 
cient preliminary analysis and without extensive trial in prac- 
tical' situations. 

5 



6 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

Of course, this is only a temporary condition. Out of the 
competition among different tests and the trials of two or more 
of them on the same individuals will come a critical literature 
which will surely bring untrustworthy instruments into disrepute. 
This sort of literature is only just now coming through. The 
development of group intelligence tests has been so rapid that 
books on their use have not had time to appear. Magazine arti- 
cles involving the use of one or two of them have been published. 
Dr. Holley's monograph on the use of mental tests appeared dur- 
ing the past autumn. The present book is another of much the 
same sort. It deals with the Binet Scale, the Army Examina- 
tions a and b, and the Army Alpha Test. 

But Dr. Proctor's book, although incidentally concerned with 
the validity of the different scales, is primarily devoted to the 
practical uses to which the results of intelligence testing may be 
put. For example, upon testing the same pupils after an interval 
of two and a half years. Dr. Proctor is especially interested in 
the fact that "the person who made the original tests . . . would 
have been in a position to give very helpful advice to all of the 
pupils tested by him ; also that his predictions as to the possible 
educational future of each of these pupils would have deserved 
serious consideration by parents and teachers." Again, when it 
becomes possible to compare the success in high school of two 
groups of pupils of which one has received guidance on the basis 
in part of intelligence testing while the other has received no 
such guidance. Dr. Proctor is especially interested in this prac- 
tical demonstration. About a third of the unguided pupils, but 
only one-fifth of the guided pupils, failed in one subject. None 
of the pupils who had received the benefit of guidance failed in 
two or more subjects, while rather more than one in ten of the 
unguided pupils failed to that extent. 

In other directions his interest in the practical use of intelH- 
gence tests leads him into the field of vocational guidance. Here 
he makes good use of the work of the army psychologists by 
which the intelligence of recruits belonging to different occupa- 
tions was revealed. These he relates to the occupational prefer- 



EDI TOM'S INTBODUCTION 7 

ences which he obtained from over nine hundred high-school 
pupils. The lowest intelligence score made by the middle 50 per- 
cent of professional workers among the army recruits was 98. 
On the other hand, 50 of the high-school pupils who expressed 
their intention of becoming professional workers scored less than 
90. Again, he points out the fact that over 60 percent of the 
high-school pupils aspired to join the ranks of the professional 
class while, according to the United States census, less than 5 
percent of the gainful workers of the country belong to that class. 
Dr. Proctor, therefore, although not neglecting the theoretical 
and scientific aspects of his subject, gives particular attention to 
the practical bearings of it. Indeed, we should say that his mono- 
graph is a good example of a method of treatment, which, while 
it is competent from the point of view of research workers, is also 
of special interest to public school workers. 

With respect to vocational guidance Dr. Proctor's material 
supports his view that those who seek a ready means of deter- 
mining whether pupils should be telephone operators or pho- 
tographers, bakers or blacksmiths, farm workers or barbers, are 
likely to be disappointed. Nothing in our general intelligence 
tests will enable us to be specific to this degree. If, however, 
occupations are divided into five or six general classes, the data 
at hand regarding the range of intelligence among people belong- 
ing to these classes are such as to permit us to say something 
definite concerning the class of work in which a given pupil may, 
so far as intelligence is concerned, be successful. Perhaps even 
here we can say with greater certainty what the class of occupa- 
tions is in which the pupil will not be successful. For example, 
if a pupil's intelligence quotient is 90, we can be sure that his 
intelligence is not sufficient for professional work but that he may 
(if other conditions are favorable) successfully pursue some oc- 
cupation belonging to the class of skilled labor. Whether that 
occupation shall be that of a bricklayer or a painter, a plumber or 
a carpenter, cannot be determined on the basis of intelligence. 
Such a determination will depend upon individual aptitude, pref- 



8 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

erences, and opportunities. In other words, we may with some 
safety advise pupils as to classes of occupations, but we cannot 
assume — at least on the basis of general intelligence — to advise 
them with respect to particular occupations within the occupa- 
tional classes. 

Those, therefore, who are looking to the intelligence test to 
determine whether a boy should be a bookkeeper or a telegrapher 
may as well know at the outset that these tests offer no basis for 
such determinations. This comes about from the very simple fact 
that the same degree of general intelligence is required and is 
now being exhibited by both bookkeepers and telegraphers. In 
other words, the difference between the qualifications for work- 
ers of these two sorts is not intellectual in the general sense. 
Perhaps we shall subsequently develop trade and occupational 
tests which will differentiate more sharply than is now possible 
between the aptitudes pertaining to occupations in the same class. 
Indeed, we can already mark out in a general way the lines along 
which such investigation will proceed. There will be, in the first 
place — to stick to our bookkeeper and telegrapher — an analysis 
of the bookkeeper's job and the telegrapher's job for the pur- 
pose of finding out what these workers have to do. From these 
data some inferences may be made as to the specific abilities 
required in learning and performing the operations incident to 
the occupation. Having determined these abilities, or the most 
important of them, tests may perhaps be devised for measuring 
such abilities. Many trials of these tests and a checking of the 
results obtained from them against the ultimate success of per- 
sons who have become bookkeepers and telegraphers will be re- 
quired in order to refine the tests to the point where they will be 
valid instruments. Meanwhile, one ought to point out that trade 
tests are quite different from guidance tests. For example, we 
have certain trade tests which have been developed in the army. 
We also have tests for clerks and stenographers. But all these 
tests are given to determine the ability of persons already belong- 
ing to the occupation or claiming to belong to it. A test to deter- 



EDITOB'S INTBODUCTION 9 

mine whether a person, prior to studying about an occupation or 
entering upon it, has the ability to pursue it successfully is quite 
another matter. 

Dr. Proctor's chapter on the application of the Army Tests to 
freshmen upon entrance to college is especially interesting. It is 
worth noting how the different educational levels correspond 
to different intelligence levels. Dr. Proctor found, for example, 
that, expressed in terms of the intelligence quotient, the typical 
first-year high-school pupil has a mentality of 105. Three or 
four years later, when elimination throughout the high school has 
had its effect, the typical intelligence of high-school graduates 
has gone up 6 points — namely to 111, If the reader will recall 
Professor Terman's classification of intelligence quotients, he will 
observe that this means that more than half of the high-school 
graduates belong in the classification called "superior" or in a 
higher classification. Between graduation from high school and 
entering college another sharp elimination apparently takes place 
in virtue of which the mentality of typical students now moves 
up 4 points so that the median intelligence quotient for students 
entering college is 115. As Dr. Proctor points out, if the same 
process of selection takes place in college as in high school, "we 
should expect the median intelligence quotient of college gradu- 
ates to be 120 or over." This means that students of no more 
than average intelligence will be likely to be eliminated from col- 
lege before the senior year. 

In conclusion, we should like to point out that Dr. Proctor 
makes no inordinate claims for the intelligence test. Some of 
the results — particularly the correspondences between intelligence 
scores and teachers' estimates and between intelligence scores and 
official ratings — would be higher if better tests had been at his 
disposal. The Army Alpha Test was not intended for high- 
school or college students. On this ground, and also because it 
was a pioneer and is capable of improvement, it is to be expected 
that future workers will secure even more significant correspond- 
ences than Dr. Proctor found. But whether this is true or not, 



10 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

the Spirit of the author would no doubt remain the same — the 

spirit of scientific conservatism which refuses (to use his own 

words) "to place undue confidence in the results of a single 

psychological examination, however thoroughly it may have 

been standardized." tt. t-. t> 

B. R. Buckingham 

January 22, 1^21 



CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

The secondary-school population of the United States has, 
since 1890, increased three times as fast as the general population. 
In the year 1915 there were 14.4 pupils of secondary grade for 
every 1,000 persons of the general population, whereas in 1890 
there were only five. According to recent estimates there are in 
the United States 14,000 high schools caring for 1,500,000 pupils 
requiring the services of 80,000 teachers, and calling for the ex- 
penditure of $75,000,000 per year for salaries and maintenance. 

The problem of administering the physical side of this vast 
educational enterprise has occupied the attention of school 
authorities to such an extent that small consideration has been 
given to the need for internal betterment. The average Ameri- 
can community is willing to tax itself for material equipment. 
An imposing high-school building becomes a matter of civic pride. 
It is a good talking point in chamber of commerce literature, and 
can be shown to visitors as an index of the progressive nature of 
the community. 

Many of our city high schools are housed in buildings supe- 
rior to those occupied by the best colleges and universities a gen- 
eration ago. Buildings costing from $500,000 to $1,000,000 are 
not uncommon; and it is perfectly safe to say that no other 
nation has begun to spend as much upon its secondary-school 
buildings as has our own. 

When, however, it comes to securing more money for teach- 
ers' salaries, for enriching the curriculum, or for other matters of 
internal improvement, the task is much more difficult. The re- 
sults obtained by spending money to make a better adjustment 
between the child and the curriculum, or between the child and 
his future place in the social order, are quite intangible. It is 
very difficult to prove to the tax-paying public that money so 
spent will pay ascertainable dividends. 

11 



12 rSTCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

Since the public is more willing to spend money on buildings 
that can be seen than on invisible internal betterments, reforms 
in our secondary schools have come very slowly. Natural con- 
servatism as well as considerations of economy have combined 
to sustain the traditional curriculum in seventy-five out of every 
hundred high schools. 

So long as preparation for college was the chief end and aim 
of secondary education, the narrow, college-preparatory course 
of study was satisfactory. But since the high-school population 
now comes from every class of home, and since only 10 percent 
of those who enter high school ever reach college, the demand has 
come to be more and more insistent that secondary education 
shall prepare the youth of the land for citizenship and vocations. 
In the discussion of the proposed reorganization of secondary 
education large space is being given to the problem of educational 
and vocational guidance. The classical, college-preparatory diigh 
school of former days had no need of educational guidance. 
There was only one course of study. It was a case of take it 
or leave it. Neither was there great need for vocational guid- 
ance. Those who could master the prescribed course of study 
were headed for the professions. Those who were unable to 
complete the course taught school or went back to the farm. The 
boy or girl in perplexity as to a life career could find wise and 
sympathetic counselors in the village minister, doctor, or lawyer. 
The boy or girl of the present day faces a much more complex 
situation. The fields of vocational opportunity have been greatly 
multiplied. Where formerly there were six or seven possible 
lines of life work open to the educated man or woman, there are 
now literally hundreds. Some agency must take over the task 
of collecting, organizing, and imparting accurate information 
regarding possible vocational opportunities to the boys and girls 
in our high schools. 

The necessary information is no longer easily accessible to the 
inquiring boy or girl. The '"No Admittance Except on Business" 
sign bars them from shop and ofiice alike. They have become 
more and more dependent upon imparted, as against first-hand, 



INTRODUCTION 13 

information concerning the qualifications necessary to success in 
tlie different fields of endeavor. The minister has been prac- 
tically eliminated as a factor in vocational guidance, because the 
church reaches such a small fraction of the high-school popula- 
tion. A majority of parents have neither the disposition nor the 
means to acquire adequate information regarding vocations to 
make them competent counselors. This means that the home is a 
much less important factor than it used to be in the vocational 
guidance of youth. 

The high school, therefore, becomes the residuary legatee of 
the church and the home in the field of educational and vocational 
guidance. Whether the high school meets its opportunity for 
service in this new direction or fails entirely to function will de- 
pend upon the methods of educational and vocational guidance 
adopted. 

The vital nature of guidance in education is well stated by 
Truman Lee Kelley:^ 

The modern idea of education is crystallizing into an effort to guide 
rather than to instruct — to answer a need rather than to cater to a 
curriculum. The growing recognition of the need of vocational and 
educational guidance is resulting in the establishment of bureaus en- 
deavoring to give the former, and in the training of psychologists to 
solve the problems of the latter. 

Also by J. M. Brewer •? 

The development of men and women is the purpose of the school, 
and the selection of and preparation for occupations is one of the 
important features of this development. The school must therefore be 
organized with the vocational guidance of the child as one of the aims 
in mind. 

This monograph embodies the results of a recent study by the 
writer involving the use of psychological tests in the educational 
and vocational guidance of high-school pupils. The data gath- 
ered and the conclusions reached are presented in the hope that 
those interested in the advisement problem in the high school may 
find herein helpful suggestions or be stimulated to make con- 
structive criticisms in the light of their own experience. 



* Kelley, Truman Lee. Educational guidance. (Teachers College, Colum- 
bia University Contributions to Education, No. 71.) New York: Teachers Col- 
lege, Columbia University, 1914, p. 1. 

* Brewer, J. M. The vocational- guidance movement. New York : Macmil- 
lan Company, 1918, p. 58. 



14 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

The Study was begun in the school year 1916-1917. All the 
pupils of the September and February entering classes of the Palo 
Alto Union High School were given the Stanford Revision of 
the Binet Intelligence Scale. In 1917-1918 group tests, Army 
Examinations a and b, and Army Alpha Test, Form 5, were given 
to more than 1,600 high-school pupils, representing nine differ- 
ent institutions. 

The high-school progress of these pupils has been noted ; in- 
formation as to vocational ambition, educational plans, etc., has 
been secured; teachers have been asked to give estimates of abil- 
ity ; and the school marks of those remaining in school have been 
obtained. The records made by 93 pupils who were graduated 
from high school subsequent to being given the psychological 
tests, and who entered Stanford University, have also been com- 
piled. Chapter IV represents a sixth year follow-up of 132 
Bineted cases, and sets forth the educational history of each case. 
Chapter VI represents a fourth year follow-up of over seven hun- 
dred cases to whom group intelligence tests were given. It throws 
light on the persistence of educational and vocational plans and 
their relation to intelligence. 

The following chapters will indicate what the writer found 
to be the value of the tests as a means of predicting probable 
high-school, vocational, or university success. The word "prob- 
able" is used advisedly because it should be stated at the outset 
that the writer is not disposed to place undue confidence in the 
result of a single psychological examination, however thoroughly 
it may have been standardized. 

The results obtained are at least suggestive of the methods 
of procedure, in the use of psychological tests by the high-school 
principal or teacher, that will throw the most light upon the prob- 
lem of educational and vocational guidance in the high school. 



CHAPTER II 

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AS A MEANS OF MEASUR- 
ING THE PROBABLE SCHOOL SUCCESS OF 
HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS 

The validity of the Stanford-Binet Scale, when applied to 
high-school pupils, was discussed by the writer in the issues of 
School and Society appearing October 19 and 26, 1918.^ In those 
articles it was shown that very significant correlations had been 
obtained between intelligence quotients,- (I.O.'s), resulting from 
the individual tests of 107 high-school pupils and the school 
marks earned by the same pupils during the school year 1916- 
1917; also between I.Q.'s and teachers' estimates of intelligence 
made during the same year. 

Two years and a half later there were 66 of the original 107 
high-school pupils remaining. Teachers who had known all of 
these pupils during their stay in the high school were asked to 
give estimates of their intelligence upon the same rating sheet 
as that which was used in 1916-1917. All school marks earned 
during the two and one-half years were averaged. Correlations 
were then found (a) between the I.Q.'s obtained in 1916-1917 
and the teachers' estimates made in 1919; (b) between the aver- 
age of all school marks earned up to April 1, 1919, and I.Q.'s ob- 
tained in 1916-1917; and (c) between the average school marks 
and the teachers' estimates made in 1919. Table I shows the 
close agreement between the correlations obtained in 1916-1917 
and those found in 1919. 

Table I shows that the correlations obtained in 1918-1919, 
when the same comparisons were made as in 1916-1917, were 



* Proctor, W. M. ' ' The use of intelligence tests in the educational guid- 
ance of high-school pupils," School and Society, 8:473-78, 502-9, October, 1918. 

^ The intelligence quotient is obtained by dividing the mental age by the 
chronological age. Thus a twelve-year-old chronologically who tested eight 
years old mentally would have an I.Q. of 0.66, expressed for convenience "66." 
The I.Q. is an index of relative brightness. For further discussion of intelli- 
gence quotient see : Terman, L. M. The vnielligenoe of school children. New 
York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1919, p. 7. 

15 



16 



PSTCEOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



TABLE I. COMPARISON OF CORREI^ATIONS OBTAINED 
IN 1916-1917 WITH THOSE OBTAINED IN 1918-1919' 



Year 


Correlation 

between I. Q. 

and Teacher 

Estimates 


Correlation 

between I. Q. 

and School 

Marks 


Correlation 

between School 

Marks and 

Teacher 

Estimates 


Total 

Number 

of 

Cases 


/ 


2 


3 


4 


5 


1916-17 

1918-19 


0.586+0.043 
0.583 ±0.055 


0.545+0.046 
O.487±0.063 


0.702±0.033 
0.667+0.046 


107 
66 



* Pearson's formula' (shorter method) was used in making all correlations. 

practically as high as those obtained in the first instance. The 
results of two and one-half years of follow-up work seem to in- 
dicate that the person who made the original tests with the 
Stanford-Binet Scale in 1916-1917 would have been in a posi- 
tion to give very helpful advice to all of the pupils tested by him; 
also that his predictions as to the possible educational future of 
each of these pupils would have deserved serious consideration 
by parents and teachers. 

As a means of discovering individual differences between 
school children in order that they may be grouped in classes ac- 
cording to ability, the individual psychological test has been 
shown to be a helpful tool. From the standpoint of school admin- 
istration, however, the individual test presents serious difficulties. 
The time required to give an individual test to a high-school 
pupil varies from 40 minutes to 120 minutes. The total number 
of pupils that can be examined by a single examiner in a day will 
seldom exceed ten. The use of the Stanford-Binet abbreviated 
scale enables an examiner to test from 15 to 25 pupils in a day. 
Even so, it is impossible to use the individual method when a 
rapid survey of an entire school population is to be undertaken. 

Group mental examinations afford the only means of meeting 
the demand for a speedy and reliable method of measuring the 



'Rugg, H. O. Statistical methods applied to education. New York- 
Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1917, p. 274. 



TESTS AND SCHOOL SUCCESS 17 

mental abilities of large groups of people. Under the supervision 
of Dr. L. M. Terman the writer directed the giving of Examina- 
tion a (Form A) and Examination Alpha (Form 5) of the Army 
Scale to 1,349 high-school pupils, representing eight California 
high schools, during the school year 1917-1918. 

Examination a consists of ten tests : ( 1 ) Oral Directions, 
(2) Memory for Digits, (3) Disarranged Sentences, (4) Arith- 
metical Reasoning, (5) Information, (6) Synonym-Antonym, 
(7) Common Sense, (8) Number Series Completion, (9) Analo- 
gies, (10) Number Comparison. The total possible raw score 
is 237. This test was given to portions of the first-year high- 
school classes in the Oakland Technical, Oakland Central and 
Fremont (Oakland) high schools and to all of the pupils present 
on the day of the examination at the Palo Alto Union High 
School. The total number of pupils was 715. 

Group Examination Alpha consists of eight tests : ( 1 ) Oral 
Directions, (2) Arithmetical Reasoning, (3) Practical Judgment, 
(4) Synonym-Antonym, (5) Disarranged Sentences, (6) Num- 
ber Series Completion, (7) Analogies, (8) Information. This 
test was given to all pupils present on the day of examination in 
the San Mateo, Redwood City, Mountain View, and Santa Clara 
union high schools. The total number of these pupils was 624. 

These group mental examinations were applied to all of the 
pupils in each of the high schools enumerated above at exactly 
the same time. A sufficient number of examiners, trained by 
Dr. Terman, was taken to each high school, to cover the entire 
high school in one forty-five minute period. The size of the 
groups ranged from 40 to 150. It took the writer and his as- 
sistant a total of 134 hours to test 107 high-school pupils by the 
individual method. Six trained examiners v/ere able to give Ex- 
amination a to 350 Palo Alto high-school pupils in 45 minutes. 
The test blanks were scored by university students. Their work 
was carefully checked and the results tabulated by the writer. 



18 psychological tests and guidance 

Group Tkst Results Compared with Individuai, 
Test Results 

One hundred and sixteen of the high-school pupils tested with 
Examination a had previously been given the Stanford-Binet 
Scale. Table II makes comparison of the two kinds of mental 
examination. Although no Binet I.Q.'s are found in the group 
140-149, six Army Scale I.Q.'s are between 140 and 149. This 
is because a higher mental age is attainable on the Army Scale 
than on the Binet Scale. For example, a high-school boy fifteen 
years and two months old passed every test in the Stanford-Binet 

TABLE II. RELATION BETWEEN THE I. Q.'S OF 116 HIGH-SCHOOL 
PUPILS EARNED ON THE STANFORD-BINET SCALE AND THE 
I. Q.'s OF THE SAME PUPILS EARNED ON EXAMINA- 
TION a, ARMY SCALE 







I. Q.'s on Examination a 


, Army Scale 






I. Q.'s on 

Stanford-Binet 

Scale 


80- 
89 


90- 
99 


100- 
109 


110- 
119 

(Median) 


120- 
129 


130- 
139 


140- 
149 


Totals 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


130-139 










3 
7 


3 
9 


5 

1 


11 


120-129 






1 


3 


21 










110-119 (Median) 




2 


8 


11 


9 


2 




32 


100-109 






13 
11 


3 
8 


4 






20 


90-99 




7 
5 






26 


80-89 










5 


70-79 


1 












1 


















Totals 


1 


14 


33 


25 


23 


14 


6 


116 







Median for Binet I. Q.: group, 110-119 
Median for Army Scale I. Q.: group, 110-119 
Correlation, Pearson's formula, 0.736; P. E., 0.029 

Scale, thus earning a mental age of nineteen years and six months, 
and an I.Q. of 129. On the Army Scale, Examination a, he made 
a raw score of 219, corresponding to a mental age score of 



TESTS AND SCHOOL SUCCESS 19 

twenty-one years and eleven months, and an I.Q. of 144.^ In 
other words, the Stanford-Binet Scale does not give the superior 
high-school pupil an opportunity to earn as high an I.O. as he can 
earn on the Army Scale. This factor would tend to lower the 
correlation betwen the two sets of IjQ.'s. The correlation ob- 
tained in Table II (+0.736) is a strong indication that if the 
Stanford-Binet Scale is a valid means of finding the mental level 
of high-school pupils, the Army Scale Examination a is also valid 
for the same purpose. 

Army Scali; Resui^ts Compared with High-Schooi. Marks 

The school work of all the high-school pupils examined by 
means of the two army group tests was carefully followed up for 
the school years 1917-1918 and 1918-1919. The marks given 
were reduced to a comparable basis by assigning arbitrary values 
to each type of mark employed by the various high schools. Thus 
an "A" or a "1" was given a value of 95 ; a "B" or a "2," a value 
of 85, etc. Letters or numbers with plus and minus signs were 
given intermediate values. All of the marks earned by a given 
pupil were averaged, but no case was included in the tables un- 
less the marks for at least two semesters of school work, the 
equivalent of one year, were available. 

1. Army Scale, Group Bxamination a. — Table III makes a 
comparison between the I.Q.'s obtained from the Group Exami- 
nation a and the quality of high-school work of 494 high-school 
pupils. The total number taking the test was 715, but only 494 
cases had ratings for one year of school work. 

Since the correlation obtained (-[-0.343) is 12.8 times the 
indicated P. E., it has considerable significance. While it is not 
as high as the correlation between Binet I.Q.'s and school marks 
found in Table I, there are several factors which may have tended 



* Mental age norms for both tests of the Army Scale were worked out by 
Dr. Samuel Kohs and the writer. It was found that about fifteen points of raw 
score on Examination a and Examination Alpha corresponded roughly to a 
mental age year. Possible raw score, Examination a, 237, possible mental age 
twenty-three years ; possible raw score, Alpha 212, possible mental age 23 years 
and 2 months. See Appendix. 



20 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



to lower the correlation. The army tests were designed for use 
with soldiers in cantonments. Many of the questions have to 
do with matters of common knowledge about a military camp, 
but with which high-school pupils have no acquaintance. This 
would especially affect the scores of high-school girls. There are 
twenty cases falling in I.Q. groups below 95, where the indicated 
school work is of a quality of 80 percent or above, and fifteen of 
these cases, or 75 percent, are girls. 

Another factor which may have tended to lower the correla- 
tion is the skewness of the school marks curve toward the high 
percents. The median school marks group in Table III is 80-84. 

TABI,E III. CORRE^IvATlONS BElTWEl^N THE I. Q.'S OF ARMY GROUP 

EXAMINATION a AND THE QUALITY OE SCHGOE WORK 

OE 494 HIGH-SCHOOE PUPIES 





Army Group Examination a I. Q.'s 




School 
Marks 


84 or 
Lower 


85- 
89 


90- 
94 


95- 
99 


100- 
104 


105- 
109 

(Median) 


110- 
114 


115- 
119 


120- 
124 


125 or 
Above 


Totals 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


* 


9 


10 


11 


12 


90 or above 






3 

5 


2 
9 


2 

18 


3 

24 


6 

22 


6 

24 


6 

8 


6 

4 


34 


85-89 






114 










80-84 (Me- 
dian) .... 


1 


2 


9 


28 


41 


46 


30 


13 


9 


3 


182 


75-79 

70-74 

65-69 


1 

2 


3 
3 

1 


9 
4 
1 


19 

14 

4 


19 
11 

1 


19 

11 

1 

1 


19 

7 
2 


7 
1 
1 


2 
1 




98 
54 
11 


55-64 
































Totals 


4 


9 


31 


76 


92 


105 


86 


52 


26 


13 


494 



t Medians: I. Q.'s, group, 105-109; school marks, group 80-84 
^^ Semi-interquartile ranges: I, Q.'s, 6 points; school marks, Ay^ percent 
(y Correlation, Pearson's formula, 0.343; P. E., 0.027 

This represents a grade of "B" or "2." It is necessary for these 
high-school pupils to receive marks of "B" or "2" in all subjects 
required for university recommendation. The Palo Alto High 



TESTS AND SCHOOL SUCCESS 



21 



School is in close proximity to Stanford University, and the Oak- 
land high schools are in the immediate vicinity of the University 
of California, The fact that 68.8 percent of the grades given 
to these 494 high-school pupils were "B" or above is an indication 
that teachers were influenced in their marking by the demand for 
"B" grades for university recommendation. Many pupils with 
just average ability were given marks superior. Hence there 
might be a rather wide difference between their mental ability as 
shown by the tests and their school progress as shown by their 
marks. 

2. Army Scale, Group Bxamination Alpha. — Table IV com- 
pares the I.Q.'s of 480 of the high-school pupils of San Mateo, 
Redwood City, Mountain View, and Santa Clara with their school 
marks. There were 624 pupils belonging to these high schools 
who took Examination Alpha, but only 480 cases came under the 
rule requiring ratings for one whole year of school work. 



TABIvi: IV, CORRi:i.ATlONS BElTWEjElN THE; I, Q,'S O^ THE ARMY 

GROUP EXAMINATION ALPHA AND THE QUALITY OF 

SCHOOL WORK OF 480 HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS 





1 

Army Group Examination Alpha I, Q's. 




School 
Marks 


84 or 
Lower 


85- 
89 


90- 
94 


95- 
99 


100- 
104 


105- 
109 

(Median) 


110- 
114 


115- 
119 


120- 
124 


125 or 

Above 


Totals 


/ 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


// 


12 


90 or over. 








3 
8 
6 

25 


3 
17 

22 

33 


15 
15 
21 


12 

24 
20 


9 

13 
10 


9 
6 

5 


5 
6 
1 


56 


85-89 








89 


80-84 






4 


89 


75-79 {Me- 
dian) .... 






7 


23 


10 


7 


4 




109 


70-74 




4 
3 


10 
3 

2 


18 
12 

5 


14 

7 
3 


22 
8 
1 


12 
8 

1 


1 
1 


1 




82 


65-69 


1 


43 


55-64 






12 
















Totals 


1 


7 


26 


77 


99 


105 


87 


41 


25 


12. 


480 



i,^..yJU' 



Medians: I. Q,'s, group 105-109; school marks, groups 75-79 
Semi-interquartile ranges: I, Q,'s, 6 points; school marks, 614 percent 
Correlation, Pearson's formula, 0,413; P, E., 0.026 




\L <>, /^'^ 



\^j^ 



..^ 



22 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



The correlation obtained in Table IV (+ 0.413) is 15.9 times 
the indicated P. E. and 0.07 higher than the correlation found in 
Table III. The higher correlation found in this table may be 
due to the fact that Examination Alpha was the result of care- 
ful revision of the first series of tests in the light of preliminary 
experimentation in three army cantonments and of the returns 
from the tests of several thousand school children. Also, the high 
schools in which Examination Alpha was applied were not in 
such close proximity to universities as were the high schools rep- 
resented in Table III. The group median for school marks is 
75-79, and only 48.8 percent of the ratings given in these four 
high schools ranged as high as "B" or over. 

When account is taken of the possible reasons for the differ- 
ence in the correlations as shown in Tables III and IV, it is safe 
to say that they are of approximately equal value. For use in 
the public schools Examination Alpha is the better scale, because 
it consists of but eight tests, can be given in less time, is scored 
more rapidly, and costs less to print. 



TABLE V. DISTRIBUTION ON APRIL 1, 1919, OF 107 
HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS TESTED WITH STANFORD- 
BINET SCALE IN 1916-1917 



Binet I. Q.'s 
Earned in 
1916-1917 


Total Number 

of 

Cases 


Distribution April 1, 1919, by Percents 


Out at 

Work (%) 


Out,Transfer'd 

to Other High 

Schools (%) 


Remaining in 
Same High 
School (%) 


/ 


2 


3 


4 


5 


79 or lower 

8(H89 


1 
7 

29 
27 
22 
15 
6 


100 

72 

31 

22 










14 

9 

22 
27 
13 
33 



14 


90-99 


60 


100-109 


56 


110-119. 


73 


120-129 


87 


130 or above 


67 


No. of cases 


107 


21 


20 


66 


Median I. Q.'s 




94 


110 


110 



tests and school success 23 

Individuai. and Group Mi;ntaIv Tksts as Mdans of 
Indicating Probabi^e Retention or Elim- 
ination OE HiGH-SCHOOE PUPIES 

1. Blimination among pupils tested with the Stanford-Binet 
Scale. — On the first day of April, 1919, it was found that 41 of 
the original 107 pupils tested in 1916-1917 with the Stanford- 
Binet Scale had dropped out of school, leaving 66 still in attend- 
ance. Table V gives the distribution of the 107 cases, showing 
the I.Q.'s of pupils who left high school to go to work, of pupils 
who were transferred to other high schools, and of pupils who 
still remain in the same high school. 

The only pupil testing below 80 I.O dropped out at the end 
of the first semester of 1916-17 to go to Work. All of those in 
group 80-89 who left school to go to work did so by the end of 
the first year. Failure in school work has been recognized as the 
most fruitful cause of elimination from high school, but the rela- 
tion between mental ability and failure in school work has not 
heretofore been given due consideration. At the end of two and 
one-half years none of those testing below 80 and only 28 per- 
cent of those testing 80-89 remain in high school. On the other 
hand, 100 percent of those testing 110 or over are pursuing their 
studies either in the Palo Alto High School or in other high 
schools. When the average school ratings of the different groups 
are taken into account the close connection between mentality and 
elimination will be still more apparent. The average school rat- 
ing of the 21 who left school to go to work was 73 percent; of 
the 20 transferred to other high schools, 77 percent ; and of the 
66 remaining in the Palo Alto High School, 79 percent. 

2. Blimination among pupils tested with the Army Bxamina- 
tion a and Alpha. — Only five of the eight high schools where the 
Army Scale was applied were selected for follow-up work in con- 
nection with elimination because the records of the three Oak- 
land high schools did not indicate whether the pupil leaving had 
been transferred to another high school or had gone to work. In 
the case of the Palo Alto, San Mateo, Redwood City, Mountain 



24 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



View, and Santa Clara high schools, it was comparatively easy 
to secure reliable data with reference to every pupil who took the 
test. The principals of all these schools had served in their re- 
spective positions from four to fourteen years, knew their pupils 
thoroughly, and had on record information concerning the move- 
ments of those who had left school since the giving of the Army 
Tests in 1917-1918. 

Table VI gives for those tested with the Army Scale a dis- 
tribution similar to that contained in Table V for the 107 tested 
with the Stanford-Binet Scale. The 955 pupils of the five high 
schools above mentioned have been distributed by LQ.'s into four 
groups : ( 1 ) those who left high school to go to work ; (2) those 
who transferred to some other high school; (3) those who grad- 
uated ; (4) those remaining in high school on April 1, 1919. The 
follow-up work covered one and one-half years of school work. 
Figure 1 illustrates graphically the data of Table VI. 

TABI^E; VI. DISTRIBUTION OP 955 HIGH-SCHOOI, PUPII,S ON 

APRII. 1, 1919, WHO were; tested WITH ARMY 

TESTS IN 1917-1918 BY I. Q. GROUPS 





Total 

Number of 

Cuses 


Distribution on April 1, 1919, by Percents 


Army Scale 

I. Q.'s Earned 

1917-1918 


Out at 
Work 

(%) 


Out, Trans- 
ferred to Other 
High School 
(%) 


Out by 
Graduation 

(%) 


Remaining in 
Same High 
School (%) 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


79 or lower 

80-89 

90-99 


13 
73 

202 
283 
221 
101 
62 


61.5 

34.3 

26.2 

12.3 

4.0 

6.9 

1.6 


7.7 
8.2 
8.9 
8.8 
14.5 
11.8 
9.8 


0.0 
5.5 
11.4 
14.1 
23.0 
19.8 
24.6 


30.8 
52.0 
53.5 


100-109 

110-119 

120-129 

130 or over. ... 


64.8 
58.5 
61.4 
64.0 


No. of Cases . . 


955 


138 


100 


153 


546 


Median I. Q.'s. 




96 


110 


111 


107 


Percent I. Q.'s 
below 100 .. . 




62.4 


25.0 


17.6 


26 5 









TESTS AND SCHOOL SUCCESS 



25 




_ l.^.'o 7} or Bo - 89 yo - 99 100-109 110-119- 120.129 130- or 

.5 loKCT ' ebova 

d I ■ Out "at work", I38 oaBe'sj 

__- " "transfer", 100 " 

IB +♦*+♦ + ♦♦♦ " "Rraduntipn" , 153 * 

figure: 1. IIvI^USTRATlNG TABI.E; VI 

In this table there appears to be a strong confirmation of the 
findings of Table V, as the following comparison will show : 



TABLE VIA. MEDIAN I. Q.'S BY GROUPS 





Out at Work 


Out, Transferred to 
Other High School 


Remaining in 
Same High School 


/ 


2 


3 


4 


Table V 


94 
96 


110 

no 


110 


Table VI 


107 






TABLE VIB. PERCENT OF PUPILS IN EACH GROUP 
WHOSE I Q.'s WERE BELOW 100 




Out at Work 


Out, Transferred to 
other High Schools 


Remaining in 
Same High School 


; 


2 


3 


4 


Table V 


71.4 
62.4 


20.0 
25.0 


27.0 


Table VI 


26.5 







26 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



The agreement between the two tables is the more striking 
when it is remembered that the 107 high-school pupils of Table V 
were all first-year pupils when the tests were given, while the 955 
pupils of Table VI comprise all the classes of five different schools. 

The tendency, noted in the discussion of Table II, for girls 
to make lower scores on the Army Scale than boys accounts for 
the 5.5 percent of pupils with I.Q.'s of 80-89 who appear in the 
"out by graduation" group. These four pupils were all girls, 
and their average rating in school work was 83 percent. 

Table VII indicates how school marks tend to correspond to 
mental level as indicated by I.Q.'s earned in the Army Tests. 

Considering the "at work" cases, it appears that only the three 
highest I.Q. groups were doing a passing grade of work. Lack 

TABLE VII. AVERAGE SCHOOL MARKS OF 955 HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS, 
DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO THE CAUSES OF LEAVING 



Cause of Leaving 


79 
I. Q. or 

Lower 


80- 

89 

LQ. 


90- 

99 

LQ. 


100- 
109 
LQ. 


110- 
119 
LQ. 


120- 
129 
LQ. 


130 
I. Q. or 
Higher 


General 
Average 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


* 


9 


At work 


65 
59 


64 
67 

83 


72 
76 
79 


66 

72 
84 


70 
82 

85 


75 
85 
84 


87 
86 
92 


71.3 


Transferred 

Graduated 


75.3 

84.5 








Average marks by 
I. Q. groups 


62.0 


71.3 


75.6 


74.0 


79.0 


81.3 


88.3 


77.3 



of mental ability was perhaps the most potent cause of elimina- 
tion, but it was not the only cause operating in these cases. When 
interest in the subjects offered, application, and ambition are lack- 
ing, high scores in the mental tests are not necessarily a guarantee 
of school success. Turning now to the pupils transferred to 
other high schools, it appears that they made better average marks 
under every 1.0. group, except the very lowest, than did the "at 
work" pupils; but it is evident that some of them transferred 
to other high schools because of failure in school work. Later 



TESTS AND SCHOOL SUCCESS 27 

checking up will no doubt find them out of school entirely. All 
of the cases in the "out by graduation" group show high aver- 
age school marks, even those whose I.Q. is between 80 and 89. 
These are the same four cases discussed in connection with 
Table VI. They illustrate how necessary it is for those em- 
ploying mental tests to be conservative in accepting the results 
of any single test as final. 

When the school marks earned by all of these "out" groups 
are averaged a series of marks is obtained, ascending gradually 
from the lowest to the highest 1.0. ratings, which indicates a 
definite tendency for the quality of school work to correspond 
to the mental level indicated by the Army Tests. 

A further following-up of the 153 who graduated from the 
five high schools between September, 1917, and April, 1919, 
brought out the fact that 94 of them were continuing their edu- 
cation in college, university, or normal school. The median I.Q. 
of those going on to higher educational institutions was found to 
be 116. One high-school girl, who earned an I.Q. of 140 on the 
Army Scale, graduated from the San Mateo High School at the 
age of fourteen years and five months. Because of the minimum 
age limit of fifteen years for entrance to the university, she was 
compelled to wait seven months before continuing her education. 
Had her case been included in the "at college" group, the median 
I.Q. would have been 118. 

Taking into account all of the cases of high-school pupils 
tested either by the individual or group method of mental exami- 
nation we find the following ascending scale of median I.Q.'s 
as a further indication that the psychological tests disclosed the 
approximate mental level of the cases discussed in the foregoing 
tables: first-year high-school pupils, median I.Q. 105; high- 
school graduates. 111; those going on to college, 116. 

Summary 

1. Individual and group mental tests of the types described 
have been shown to be sufficiently reliable to justify their use as 
aids in determining the mental level of high-school pupils. 



28 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

2. Group tests, such as Army Scale Examinations a and 
Alpha, make possible a preliminary mental survey of an entire 
high-school population at the beginning of a school year. The 
resulting raw scores will be found to be of great value in group- 
ing the pupils according to ability. Such tests should always be 
supplemented with every other possible means of discovering the 
mental level. The results should be considered tentative and 
subject to revision in the light of later developments. 

3. The high-school principal who makes such a preliminary 
mental survey of his pupils can be reasonably sure that 50 per- 
cent of those who test below normal will be eliminated within 
the first two years ; that 25 percent additional of the subnormal 
group will have been transferred to other high schools because 
of failure in their school work ; and that a negligible number will 
ever graduate. With this information at hand he can plan the 
curriculums of his pupils more intelligently. Discovering at the 
outset that from 15 to 30 percent of his pupils are incapable of 
succeeding in the conventional high-school subjects, he will un- 
dertake to make new adjustments to meet the situation. There 
will be fewer failures ; more pupils will remain to take work that 
is adapted to their needs and capacities ; and the high school will 
be less open to the charge of catering only to the intellectual 
aristocracy among its pupils. 



CHAPTER III 

THE USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS IN THE EDU- 
CATIONAL GUIDANCE OF HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS 

In the previous chapter the writer has shown that there is a 
very close relationship between intelligence level and the elim- 
ination of pupils from high school. There are good grounds for 
the prediction that 75 percent of those who test below average, 
mentally, will fail in more than one-half of their studies during 
their first year of high school ; that 50 percent of them will leave 
school to go to work during the first two years ; and that none 
of them will remain to graduate. The members of this group 
demand special attention. If they are not carefully guided in| 
the selection of their high-school work many of them will fail 
in all of their subjects during the first semester, with elimination 
as the inevitable result. ^^ 

Heretofore we have acted upon the assumption that the only 
way to discover the capabilities of high-school pupils was to per- 
mit them to try themselves out in various subjects of the high- 
school curriculum. It has even been a common practice to require 
all first-year high-school pupils to take an abstract subject such 
as algebra. Thus many a promising educational bark has gone 
down on the uncharted rocks of the first-year high-school subjects. 

Experimentation with psychological tests has now reached a 
stage where we can begin to hope that this wasteful trial and error 
method of procedure is to be discarded for a more scientific plan 
of educational guidance. No tests have yet been devised, either 
mental or pedagogical, which enable the adviser to chart unerr- 
ingly the educational ppssibilities of a given youth, but we have 
made sufficient progress in mental measurements to be able to 
estimate with approximate accuracy the probable school success 
of a given pupil. The results of a practical experiment in edu- 
cational guidance by means of mental tests will be described in 
the following pages. 

29 



30 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

Conditions Surrounding the Experime:nt 
The mid-year viii-a class of the Palo Alto intermediate school 
comprising 31 pupils was examined with the Stanford-Binet 
Scale in January, 1918. Figure 2 shows the distribution of in- 



x.v» 
X50 

1*5 
140 

135 
130 
125 
120 

115 

no- 

105 

100 

95 
90 
85 
60 
75 
70 

65 
60 

55 



Chronolog- 16 Years 15 Years 14 Years 13 Years 

ical Age 4 Cases 7 Cases 8 Cases 12 Cases 

figure: 2. ILLUSTRATING DISTRIBUTION OF VIII-A^ PUPIIvS BY I.Q.'S 
AND CHRONOLOGICAL AGES 

telligence quotients by chronological age groups. There were 
twelve thirteen-year-old pupils, eight fourteen-year-old, seven 
fifteen-year-old, and four sixteen-year-old pupils examined. The 



In grade designations "A" means "second half." 



EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE 31 

lowest I.Q. discovered in the thirteen-year-old group was 1 10. All 
of the thirteen-year-olds were, therefore, accelerated mentally. 
None of the fourteen-year-old group fell below 95 I.Q. They 
were all at or above age mentally. One fifteen-year-old had an 
I.Q. of 90 and would be listed as "below average" in intelligence. 
Of the four sixteen-year-old pupils, all of whom would be ac- 
counted chronologically retarded, three had I.'Q.'s of 88, and one 
an I.Q. of 96. That is to say, one of the sixteen-year-olds was 
normal and three would rate as "dull-normal." 

Of the 31 members of the viii-a class, 22 entered the Palo 
Alto High School in February, 1918. Four members of the class 
entered secondary schools elsewhere, two entered business col- 
leges, two went to work, and one, a girl with an I.Q. of 88, eloped 
with a soldier from a nearby encampment. 

Only four members of this viii-a class had earned I.Q.'s be- 
low 95. One of these, as just indicated, did not enter high 
school. The remaining three entered high school, but two of 
them dropped out before the end of the first year. The percent 
of elimination from the class of those who tested below 95 I.Q. 
was therefore 75.0. The one who remains in high school is mak- 
ing an average record in scholarship. She made a rating of 
"average" on an Army Test given a few weeks later, and has 
shown herself capable of diligent application to her school work. 

Each member of the class was questioned as to his or her 
vocational ambition, educational plans, and the subjects which he 
or she would like to take up during the first year of high school. 
These data, as well as results attained in Stanford-Binet and 
Army Mental Tests, were recorded on cards. 

UsK Made of Information Gathered 

The cooperation of the vice-principal and the adviser of the 
entering class was obtained in order that the members of the viii-a 
class might receive intelligent educational guidance when they 
entered the high school. Duplicate sets of cards were prepared 
for the use of these persons. On registration day all the newly 



32 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



entered viii-a graduates were referred to the vice-principal or the 
class adviser for help in making out their curriculums. No one 
was permitted to file a study card without this conference. 

Following are samples of the cards used in this experiment in 
educational guidance. The only change from the original is in 
the case of the name. 

CARD NO. 1 



Smith, Jane 

Score Army Scale ... 1 5 1 
Army Scale mental age: 

17 yrs . , 5 mo . 

Army Scale I. Q 124 



Chronological age: 

13 yrs . , 9 mo . 

Stanford-Binet mental age: 

16 yrs . , 3 mo . 

Stanford-Binet I. Q 118 



High school subjects which 
pupil desires to take: 

Sewing 

French 

History 

Typewriting 

Piano 



Educational plans: 

To finish high 
school and take 
business college 
course . 

Vocational ambition: T 6 

a stenographer or 
"bookkeeper. 



Grade of work done in intermediate and grammar schools: 

"B" and "B+" 

Comment of Examiner: If assigned tO al- 
gebra can safely he placed in 
first "rapid progress" division. 



Jane Smith was advised to take subjects that would make it 
possible for her to go on to college as well as to carry out her 
ambition to become a stenographer. She took up English, Ger- 
man, algebra, and typewriting. During the first semester of her 
high-school course she made an average of "B" in all of her 
subjects. 

Card No. 2 relates to Mary Jones who took exactly the sub- 
jects outlined on her card, except that being a first-year pupil she 



EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE 



33 



was permitted to take four subjects only and had to wait until 
her second year for drawing. At the end of the first semester 
in high school she had earned three "A" grades and a "B+/' 
with an average of 93 percent. 



CARD NO. 2 



Jones, Mary 

Score Army Scale. . , 148 
Army Scale, mental age: 

17 yrs . , 2 mo . 
Army Scale I. Q. . . . 131 



Chronological age: 13 y TS . , 

1 mo . 

Stanford-Binet mental age: 

17 yrs. , 2 mo. 



Stanford-Binet I. Q 131 



High school subjects which 
pupil desires to take: 

English 
Algebra 
Latin 
History 
Drawing 



Educational plans: 

To finish high 
school and attend 
a university or 
normal school. 

Vocational ambition: To 

become a drawing 
teacher. 



Grade of work done in grammar and intermediate schools : " A " 
Comment of Examiner: KnOWS JUSt where she 

is going and how to get there. 
May safely be permitted to select 
her own course of study. Assign 
to first division in algebra. 



Here was the case of a girl with very superior ability as in- 
dicated by two different mental examinations, by her school rec- 
ord and by the estimates of her elementary and intermediate 
school teachers. She gave evidence of being an independent 
thinker, of knowing just what she wanted to make of herself, 
and just what she would have to do by way of preparation. The 
necessity for educational and vocational guidance in her case 



34 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



might well be questioned. However, it was a real advantage 
to her teachers to know at the very beginning of her high-school 



CARD NO. 3 



Roe, Richard 

Score Army Scale ... 1 5 
Army Scale mental age: 

17 yrs . , 4 mo . 
Army Scale I. Q. ...120 



Chronological age: 14 yrS., 

4 mos. 

Stanford-Binet mental age: 

16 yrs. 9 mo. 

Stanford-Binet I. Q 117 



High school subjects which 
pupil desires to take: 

English 
History 
Alge"bra 
French 



Educational plans: 

To finish high 
school then at- 
tend a university 
or the U. S. 
naval academy. 

Vocational ambition : Chemi- 
cal engineer or 
naval officer. 



Grade of work done in elementary and intermediate schools: 

Very poor. Estimated as "average" 
"by some grade teachers, and as 
""below average" "by others. 

Comment of Examiner: Boy has a"bility "but 

needs to "be waked up. Suggest 
that he take general science in 
place of history for first 
year. Also suggest that he "be 
placed in first division in alge- 
bra where he will have to work. 
He will need to develop ability 
in "both science and mathematics if 
he is to follow his vocational 
am"bition. 



career the quality of her ability and something of her life plans 
in order that they might give immediate and sympathetic co- 



EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE 35 

Operation. Without this knowledge they might have made the 
mistake of holding her back to the pace of the "average" pupil. 
Fortified by the facts relative to her mental gifts and vocational 
ambitions, she is to be permitted to complete her high-school 
course in three years. 

CARD NO. 4 



Brown, Carrie Chronological age: 15 yrs ., 

Score Army Scale... 100 7 mO . 

Army Scale mental age: Stanford-Binet mental age: 

14 yrs., mo., 14 yrs . , 2 mo . 

Army Scale I. Q ..... 8 9 Stanford-Binet I. Q 90 

High school subjects which 

pupil desires to take: Educational plans: 

English To go to Mills 

Algebra College 

Latin Vocational ambition: To be 

Typing a Chemist. 

Drawing 

Grade of work done in intermediate and grammar schools: 

Grades in 8A class only fair, even 
in work that is being repeated. 
Estimates of elementary and inter- 
mediate teachers: "slow" but 
a conscientious worker. 

Comment of Examiner: Should be disCOUr- 

aged as to taking Latin. Algebra 
doubtful, but if she insists in 
view of desire to go to college, 
assign to second division. 

There is just as much danger that the bright pupil will not 
be given enough to do, as that the dull pupil will be given tasks 
that are too difficult to perform. 

The boy whose card is set forth above enrolled for English, 
algebra, history, and general science, upon entering high school. 
During his first half year he made grades of "C" in English, and 



36 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

"B" in each of his other subjects. This was a great improve- 
ment over the grades earned by him in the eighth grade. A re- 
cent checking up shows that he has brought up his English grade 
and is maintaining college recommendation standing in all his 
work. The mental tests were an aid to his advisers in discovering 
how to spur him on to creditable achievement in his school work. 

The program finally worked out by Carrie Brown and the 
class adviser included English, algebra, free-hand drawing, and 
typing. Her grades at the end of the first semester in high school 
were: English, "C" ; algebra, "E" (failure) ; free-hand draw- 
ing, "C"; typing, "B." She had failed in algebra, the subject 
counted as doubtful by the examiner, and had earned less than 
college recommendation grades in the only other subjects that 
would be counted toward entrance to Mills College. Even if she 
completes high school her chance of continuing in college is not 
at all bright. 

A sufficient number of sample cards has been described to 
illustrate the method employed. There was no coercion. Coun- 
sel and advice in the selection of subjects were all that was at- 
tempted, but the counsel and advice offered were based on all the 
significant information with regard to mental ability, school suc- 
cess, vocational ambition, and teachers' estimates of ability that 
could be obtained. Certain pupils elected to take subjects which 
the advisers felt sure they would fail in and made passing grades. 
Others taking subjects on the advice of the counselors failed. 
Such cases simply illustrate the truth that no human agency, 
however fortified with information or however careful to mix 
common sense with theories, can hope to be infallible. The gen- 
eral results of the experiment, however, were very satisfactory. 

ResuIvTs Attained by "Guided" and "Unguided" 

HiGH-SCHOOIv PUPIES 

The original group of 107 high-school pupils which entered 
the Palo Alto High School in September, 1916, were examined 
with the Stanford-Binet Scale after entering high school. They 



EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE 



37 



had already selected their courses of study at the time of being 
examined. They may therefore properly be designated as the 
"unguided" group. A comparison of the first year's work done 
by the members of the "unguided" group with the work done by 
the group of 22 that entered high school in February, 1918, and 
which had the benefit of counsel based on mental tests and other 
significant data, will illustrate the value of careful guidance as 
against the trial and error method of selecting high-school courses 
of study. 

TABI^E: VIII. COMPARATIVE FACTS REGARDING "GUID^d" AND 

"unguided" groups of high-schooIv pupils 



Group 


Out at 
Work 


Per- 
cent 


Out by 
Transfer 


Per- 
cent 


Failed 

1 
Subject 


Per- 
cent 


Failed 
2 or 
More 


Per- 
cent 


Guided .... 
Unguided. . 


1 
13 


4.5 
12.1 


2 
14 


9.1 
13.1 


4 
33 


18.2 
30.8 



11 


0.0 
10.3 



It is not exactly true to fact to designate the original group of 
107 as the "unguided" group. Most of them had been examined 
with the Stanford-Binet before the end of the first six-week 
period. Whenever the results of the first six weeks of school 
work confirmed the indications of the mental tests that a pupil 
would probably fail in such abstract subjects as algebra, Latin, 
etc., that pupil was permitted to drop the subject and continue 
the semester carrying but three subjects. The subject dropped 
at the end of the first six-week period was not counted as a fail- 
ure in compiling the data for Table VIII. The mental tests were 
utilized to aid in correcting the mistakes made by the pupils in 
the unguided selection of their subjects. To this extent, then, 
the original group was guided, but the guidance came after, not 
before school work was begun. 

The number of failures registered against the "unguided" 
group at the end of their first year in high school would undoubt- 
edly have been greatly increased if it had not been for the lim- 
ited guidance above described. This fact gives greater signifi- 
cance to the data presented in Table VIII. 



38 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GVIDANCE 



The median I.Q. of the unguided group was 105, and the 
median I.Q. of the guided group was 108, a difference of three 
points in favor of the guided group, but this is not in itself an 
adequate explanation of the superior record made by the guided 
group during its first year in high school. 

The most significant facts to be found in Table VIII are those 
relating to number of failures in one subject, and in two or more 
subjects. It appears that 30.8 percent of the unguided group 
failed in one subject, and 10.3 percent failed in two or more sub- 
jects during their first year in high school, while of the guided 
group only 18.2 percent failed in one subject and none of them 
failed in two subjects. Since it has been shown that failures in 
school work tend to increase the percent of elimination it is rea- 
sonable to attribute the small percent of elimination due to leav- 
ing high school to go to work, in the case of the guided group, to 
entire absence of failures in two or more subjects. 

The results of the above described experiment in educational 
guidance by means of mental tests would seem to justify the con- 
clusion that such tests may be of material assistance to the high- 
school administrator, if used in connection with other significant 
data. It is certain that the methods applied in this instance, if 
employed in any high school, would prove greatly superior to the 
wasteful "trial and error" methods that now prevail. 

TABI^i: IX. CORRElvATlONS BETWEEN I.Q.'S AND GRADES IN 
AI^GEBRA OE 113 HIGH-SCHOOI, PUPII^S 



Algebra 
Grades 








I. Q.'s 


3 (Stanford-Binet) 










80- 

84 


85- 
89 


90- 
94 


95- 
99 


100- 
104 


105- 
109 


110- 
114 


115- 
119 


120- 
124 


125- 
over 


Totals 


"A" 








2 


1 


3 



1 

7 
5 


1 
2 
5 
3 


1 
2 
5 
3 


3 
5 
2 
3 
1 


11 


"B+".. . 








10 


"B" 




2 

1 


2 

4 


3 
5 
1 
2 
3 


7 

6 

..... 


3 
2 
1 
1 
1 


36 


"C" 




32 


"C-"... 




3 


"D" 




1 
3 


"5" 


1 
2 






6 


"E" 


1 








15 












Totals. . 


1 


7 


11 


16 


15 


11 


16 


11 


11 


14 


113 



Correlation (Pearson) : 0.46 
Probable error: 0.05 



educational guidance 39 

ReivATion of Generai, Levee oe Inteeeigence to Success 
IN A Given Subject 

In Table IX is shown the correlation between general levels 
of intelligence and high-school grades in algebra. The algebra 
grades are recorded under the letters A, B+, B, C, C — , D, and E. 
The I.Q.'s come under the groups 85-89, 90-94, 95-99, etc. 

The correlation obtained, 0.46, which is nine times the prob- 
able error, can be counted as having considerable significance. An 
examination of the data contained in Table IX will show that 
twelve of the fifteen failures in algebra, or 80.0 percent of the 
total number of failures, were earned by pupils with I.Q.'s below 
100. There were 35 pupils having I.Q.'s below 100, and 26 of 
them, or 74.3 percent earned marks below "B," which is the col- 
lege recommendation grade in California. On the other hand 
there were 78 pupils with I.Q.'s above 100, and 45 of these, or 63.0 
percent, earned marks of "B" or above. An I.O. of 120 or over 
denotes very superior intelligence. There are 25 cases with I.Q.'s 
120 or over in Table IX. All of these succeeded in earning pass- 
ing grades in algebra. Only one received a mark as low as "C — ." 

High-school statistics show that algebra is responsible for 
more failures of first-year pupils than any other subject. Table 
IX suggests that probable success or failure in algebra can be 
inferred from the general level of intelligence as disclosed by 
mental tests. It follows that the high percent of failure in algebra 
could be materially reduced if only those were encouraged to take 
the subject whose general level of intelligence measured up to 
average or better. 

Relation of Score in a Particular Mentae Test to Suc- 
cess IN A Given High-Schooe Subject 

Test No. 9, in Army Scale, Group Examinations a and h, is a 
"word relations" test. It involves a knowledge of word meanings 
and also the ability to use words intelligently in their proper re- 
lations to one another. Table X compares the scores made by 
171 first-year pupils of the Palo Alto High School in Test No. 9 



40 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



with the grades made by the same pupils in English during their 
first high-school year. 

The directions for giving the test are as follows : 
In each of the lines below, the first two words have a certain rela- 
tion. Notice that relation and draw a line under the one word in the 
parenthesis which has that particular relation to the third word. Begin 
with No. I and mark as many sets as you can before time is called. 

tabi^e; X. corre;i,ations between grades in kngivIsh and 

SCORES IN GROUP INTElvUGENCE TEST NO. 9 OE ARMY 
SCAEE OE 171 HIGH-SCHOOE PUPIES 



Marks in 


Scores in Test No. 9, Examinations a and b 


First Year 
English 


1- 

4 


5- 
9 


10- 
14 


15- 
19 


20- 
24 


25- 
29 


30- 

34 


35- 
39 


40 


Totals 


"A" 








1 
1 

5 
17 


4 
7 

16 

17 

1 

1 


1 

14 

19 

8 

1 


3 
10 
13 

6 


2 
2 
6 

2 




11 


"B+" 






1 
1 
9 


35 


"B" 






60 


"C" 




3 


62 


"D" 




2 


"E" 
















1 






















Totals 


■ 


3 


11 


24 


46 


43 


32 


12 




171 









Correlation (Pearson) : 0.48 
Probable error: 0.04 

Sample sets are then given by the examiner to illustrate what 
is wanted : 

sky — blue : grass — (grow, green, cut, dead) 
fish — swims: man — (boy, woman, walks, girl) 
day — night: white — (red, black, clear, pure) 

There were forty sets of words and the time allowed was 
three minutes. For purposes of tabulation the scores made by the 
pupils are grouped : 1—4, 5—9, . . . 35—39, 40—. The English 
grades are indicated by the letters A, B-|-, B, C, C — , D and E. 

The correlation, 0.478, is twelve times the probable error and 
indicates that a good score in the "word relations" test is a fairly 
good index of ability in first-year high-school English. The 
marks in English were the final year marks, which represent the 
minimum of "D's" and "E's," because all conditions and failures 
had been removed that could be made up. The median score in 



EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE 41 

Test No. 9 was 26, and hence scores of 30 or over could be consid- 
ered superior. There were 44 pupils who made scores of 30 or 
over, and 36 of these or 82.0 percent made marks in first-year 
English of "B" or above. Of the 89 who made scores of from 20 
to 29 inclusive, 68.5 percent made marks in first-year English of 
"B" or above; while of the 38 who made scores of from one to 
nineteen inclusive, only 23.7 percent made marks of "B" or above. 

Stated in terms of recommendation for college the above 
analysis of the data of Table X means that 76.3 percent of the 
high-school pupils whose ability in word relations is represented 
by a score of less than 20 fail to secure a college recommendation 
grade, while only 18.0 percent of those who attain a score of 30 
or over in the same test fail to secure such a grade. 

These results seem to indicate that a series of tests involving 
the fundamental traits of mind essential to. the successful study 
of English could be devised. But there are so many mental traits 
involved in the mastery of the subject of English that a series of 
tests bringing into play all those traits would undoubtedly be 
found to be a good test of general intelligence as well as a test 
of specific ability in English. 

Summary and ConcIvUSions 

1. The results of an experiment in educational guidance, in 
which all the members of an viii-a class about to enter high school 
were given mental tests and advised with reference to their first- 
year high-school work, proved very satisfactory. * Compared with 
an unguided group it was found that while 31 percent of the un- 
guided group failed in one subject, and 10 percent failed in two 
or more subjects during their first high-school year, only 18 per- 
cent of the guided group failed in one subject and none of them 
failed in two subjects. ., The mental tests aided in the discovery 
of the pupil's general level of intelligence, made possible the giv- 
ing of sound educational advice at the time when it would do the 
most good, and thus tended to reduce the percent of failure and 
elimination. The methods employed can be adapted to the needs 
of any high school. 



42 FSYCEOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

2. The general level of intellig-ence is shown to have real 
significance as a means of predicting success in a particular sub- 
ject, such as algebra. In Table IX it was shown that 100 percent 
of those having I.Q.'s of 120 or over passed in their algebra, 
while 40 percent of those with I.Q.'s below 100 either failed or 
were conditioned in algebra, and only 26 percent of the members 
of this group earned college recommendation grades. The gen- 
eral level of intelligence could be relied upon as a means of select- 
ing those who would be most likely to succeed in algebra and 
kindred subjects. 

3. Success in a particular test of a series may be a fairly re- 
liable index of success in a high-school subject involving the 
mental traits supposed to be measured by the test in question. 
High scores in the "word-relations" test of the Army Scale, Ex- 
aminations a and b, correspond generally to high marks in first- 
year high-school English, while scores below twenty in the same 
test correspond generally to low marks in the same subject. 

4. Mental tests for purposes of prognosis in individual high- 
school subjects such as algebra, English, etc., could no doubt be 
devised. But the mastery of any high-school subject involves 
such a complex of mental traits that any test which proves to be 
a good test of ability to succeed in one subject is quite apt to be 
found a good test of general mental ability. It has already been 
shown that a high-school pupil having a high level of intelli- 
gence will probably succeed in all of his subjects, and conversely 
that a pupil having a low level of intelligence is apt to fail in most 
of his high-school subjects. The best way, therefore, in which to 
arrive at an estimate of a given pupil's probable success in a 
specific high-school subject is to discover the general level of his 
intelligence. It follows that standardized mental tests may ren- 
der invaluable service in the educational guidance of high-school 
pupils. Particularly will this be found to be true if the results 
of the mental test are interpreted in the light of other significant 
data, such as school marks made in previous grades, teachers' 
estimates of ability, and educational and vocational plans. 



CHAPTER IV 

STATUS OF ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-ONE CASES, 

TESTED WITH STANFORD REVISION OF 

BINET SCALE, AND FOLLOWED UP 

FOR PERIOD OF SIX YEARS 

At a recent meeting of the National Research Council one of 
the points emphasized was the need for long time follow-up rec- 
ords on large groups of individuals who had been given tests 
with standard intelligence scales. The results of such a follow-up 
are set forth in this chapter. One group of high-school pupils, 
numbering 107, was tested with the Stanford Revision of the 
Binet Scale after entering high school in 1916,^ and another 
group of viii-A pupils, numbering 31, was given the same test 
before entering high school in 1917.^ Five of the second group 
never entered high school and two of the first group did not stay- 
long enough to make any tangible record. This leaves one hun- 
dred thirty-one who entered high school and stayed long enough 
to secure some sort of report on their scholastic effort. The first 
follow-up, made in April, 1919, is summarized in Chapter II, 
page 22, for the first group of 107, and in Chapter III, page 31, 
for the second group of 31. 

The data included in this chapter represent the situation as 
it was found on June 1, 1923, seven years after the first group 
and six years after the second group had been given the psycho- 
logical tests. All of the pupils who were still in high school in 
1917-1918 were also given the U. S. Army Alpha or Examina- 
tions a and b. In the following tables an effort has been made 
to set forth all of the significant facts regarding the one hundred 
thirty-one cases which it has been possible to follow up. This 
information includes : Binet I.Q., Army Test I.Q., average high- 
school marks, father's occupation, vocational ambition while in 
high school, educational plan while in high school, time spent in 



* See note 1, page 15, this Monograph. 
' See page 30. 

43 



44 PSYCnOLOOICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

hi^h scluxjl, j)rcscnl occui)alion if employed, sex, and institution 
uUeiided if in a higher institution. 

The data arc treated in four tal)les : Table XI, where all the 
cases are arran.i^cd accordint,^ to rank order by I.Q., on the Binet 
Scale; Tabic Xii (a), thirty cases, those who did not complete 
hijrh school; Table XII (b), thirly-four cases, those who did 
coniplclc liif^di school, but who did not ^o any farther with their 
cdiualion; Table XIll (a) and (b), sixty-seven cases, those at- 
tending higher inslilulions. 

Before taking uj) the discussion of these tables a few gen- 
eral observations regarding the high school attended by the pupils 
inidcr consideration, and the ccMuniunity in which it is located, 
will throw some light on the general character of the results dis- 
closed. The Palo Alto Union High School District is made up 
of Ihc clcnicnl.iry districts of Taio Alto, Mayfield, and Stanford 
University C\in)ptis, all of which arc residential communities in- 
tlucnced as to character of population by the proximity of Stan- 
ford University. The innuence of the university is shown in 
the educational plans of the high-school pupils, eighty-two of 
whom, or (k^ percent, expressed a desire to attend institutions 
above the grade of Business College. The program of studies 
of the Palo Alto High School itself is predominantly academic 
and in the educational guidance given to pupils the College En- 
trance C'urriculum is featured. The selective nature of the uni- 
versity on the Palo Alto high-school population is illustrated 
clearly in the results of this follow-up study. In. the country at 
large not more than sixty out of one hundred thirty-one pupils 
entering high school would have graduated and not more than 
thirty would have gone on to higher institutions.^ Of the one 
hundred thirty-one pupils who entered the Palo Alto Union High 
School as above indicated in 1916-17 and the January class of 
1917-18, 101, or 77 percent graduated at the end of four years 
or less, and 67, or 51 percent, were in higher institutions of 
learning on June 1, 192v^. Other results, characteristic of a uni- 



' U. S. Bureau of Ed. BuUetm, 1919. No. 91. Pp. 329 and 239. 



CASEfi FOLLOWED UP 45 

versity community, will be evident as the data presented in the 
four tables above referred to are analyzed, 

A reasonably accurate follov^-up, covering so long a period, 
has been made possible by the fact that the Palo Alto Union High 
School has had the same principal, Mr. Walter H. Nichols, and 
the same vice-principal. Miss Rebecca Green, since 1915. This 
fortunate circumstance made it possible for the writer and his 
two assistants, Miss Helen Ward and Miss Madeline Dallas, both 
graduate students in Stanford University, to secure readily any 
desired information. 

1. Discussion of Table XL — In this table all of the cases are 
arranged in rank order according to the results of the Binet test 
and in quarters. The summary of Table XI by quarters is sig- 
nificant from the standpoint of educational guidance. Of those 
who did not complete high school, 87 percent are found in the 
third and fourth quarters, (lower half) ; 13 percent in the sec- 
ond and none at all in the top quarter according to mental ability. 
Of those who went on to higher institutions, 78 percent are found 
in the top half of the distribution according to ability, and only 
6 percent of such cases appear in the fourth or lowest quarter. 
Those who graduated from high school but did not go beyond 
occupy about a middle ground in the distribution, since 67 per- 
cent of them are found in the second and third quarters. Suc- 
cess in high-school studies seems to be directly related to mental 
ability, as shown by the median marks earned by the pupils in 
each quarter, i. e., B + for the first quarter, B for the second, 
B — for the third and C + for the fourth. 

Sex differences in ability and in school success are shown in 
the last two columns of the general summary and the summary 
of high-school marks. There are 72 boys, and 58 percent of them 
are found in the top half of the distribution; while of the 59 
girls, only 40 percent are found in the top half. The superior 
ability of the boys is further shown in that their median I.Q. on 
the Binet Scale is 109, while the median I.Q. of the girls is 103. 
When it comes to school achievement, however, the girls make 
the better showing. The median mark of the boys in the top 



46 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



TABI,^ XL ARRANGEMENT OF 131 CASES ACCORDING TO RANK 
ORDER OF I.Q. ON STANFORD REVISION OF BINET SCALE 



Case 

No. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 



I.Q 

Binet 



Top or First Quarter 



67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

87 

88 

89 

90 

91 

92 

93 

94 

95 

96 

97 

98 

99 



142 

137 

137 

135 

134 

134 

133 

132 

132 

131 

131 

131 

129 

128 

127 

127 

125 

125 

125 

124 

124 

123 

123 

123 

123 

122 

122 

122 

121 

121 

120 

119 

119 



I , 

Group 



148 
140 
132 
140 
134 
132 
130 
116 
145 
130 

i24 
133 
138 
128 
141 
135 
128 
132 
132 
133 
127 
120 

i27 
110 
109 
130 

128 
130 
124 



H. S. 

Marks 



B 

C+ 

B + 

A- 

B- 

B 

B 

B + 

B- 

A- 

A- 

B + 

B 

B + 

B + 

B- 

A 

A 

B 

A- 

B 

B + 

B 

B- 

A- 

B- 

B 

B 

B- 

B + 

B + 

A- 

B 



Status in 
June, 1923 



University- 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
Gr. HS. Bus 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
University 
Normal Sch. 
Agri. Col. 
Gr. HS. Bus. 
University 
University 
Gr. HS. Bus. 
University 



106 
106 
105 
105 
104 
104 
104 
103 
103 
103 
103 
102 
102 
102 
101 
101 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 



97 
97 
97 



Third Quarter 



104 
102 
107 

i24 
107 
101 
121 
104 
101 
97 
114 
112 

ii7 

i22 
120 
109 
104 
101 
101 
101 
108 

iis 

112 
112 
110 
100 
104 
103 
102 



C + 

c 

B + 

D 

C + 

B 

C+ 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B + 

C 

C 

B 

B 

B + 

D+ 

D + 

B 

Inc. 

B 

B- 

C + 

c+ 

B- 

B 

D+ 

B 

C- 

B- 

C 

B- 



Gr. HS. Mar. 
Gr. HS. Lab. 
University 
HS. lyr. Bus. 
University 
Gr. HS. Mar. 
Gr. HS. Mar. 
University 
University 
HS.2Hyr. Bus 
University 
Gr. HS. Bus. 
Gr. HS. Mech 
Gr. HS. Bus. 
University 
University 
University 
HS. lyr. Mar. 
Gr. HS. Bus. 

Gr. HS. Mar. 

HS. i^yr. Lab. 

Gr. HS. Bus. 

Gr. HS. Bus. 

Gr. HS. Bus. 

HS. lyr. Hm. 

Gr. HS. Mech. 

Gr. HS. Bus. 

HS. 2yr. Bus. 

Gr.HS.Bk-kp. 

University 

Normal Sch. 

Gr. HS. Bus 

University 




Second Quarter 



Status in 
June, 1923 



University 

Gr.HS.Mar. 

University 

University 

University 

Gr.HS.Mar. 

HS. lyr. Lab. 

University 

University 

University 

University 

University 

University 

HS. Syr. Bus. 

University 

Gr. HS. Art 

Gr. HS. Mar. 

Gr. HS. Bus. 

University 

HS,3i^yr.Hm. 

University 

University 

University 

University 

University 

University 

Gr. HS. Bus. 

University 

Gr. HS. Bus. 

University 

University 

HS. 2yr.Mech. 

University 



Sex 



B 
G 
B 
B 
G 
G 
B 
B 
G 
B 
G 
B 
B 
B 
B 
G 
G 
B 
G 

G 
B 

G 

G 

B 

G 

G 

G 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 



Fourth Quarter 



HS. lyr. Lab. 

HS. 3yr. Hm. 

HS. lyr. Lab. 

Gr.HS. Nurse 

HS. lyr. Mar. 

Gr. HS. Bus. 

Gr. HS. Bus. 

Gr. HS. Bus. 

HS.2J^yr.Sew 

HS. lyr. Lab. 

University 

University 

University 

University 

HS. Hyr. Hm. 
Gr. HS. Bus. 
HS. 3yr. Bus. 
HS. lyr. Mar. 
Gr. HS. Bus. 
Gr. HS. Bus. 
HS. J^yr. Lab. 
HS. i^yr. Mar. 
Gr. HS. Bus. 
HS.i^yr.Bus. 
HS.2yr.Mar. 
HS.3i^yr.Lab. 
HS. lyr. Lab. 
HS.2yr.Carp. 
HS.2yr.Mar. 
HS.lJ^yr.Hm. 
HS.Kyr.Mar. 
HS. >^yr. Hm 



B 
G 
B 
G 
G 
B 
G 
G 
G 
B 
B 
B 
B 
B 

G 

G 

G 

G 

B 

B 

B 

G 

B 

B 

G 

B 

B 

B 

G 

G 

G 

G 



, Explanation of abbreviations in Table XI. "Universitv " rv,o„„ I ; — , ^ ■ 

University Specific institutions named in Tables XT Tnn'^ ?ff?^ ^J^ standard College or 
graduated from High School and now engaged in som^Tradp^orp"- ^f-, ^^- B"?-"' «^«^°« 
lyr. Bus.", means left high school at end of nno ,,^ j ^^ Commercial occupation. "HS. 

cial occupation. "Mar.": means married "hJ" ' ^""^ '"''^. engaged Jin Trade or Commer- 
-Mech." means engaged in 'some TecTanical^^cupatior -l^s^T"' S^P.^tion not known, 
school at the end of one year and now e^ed iHnsldiled fabor "^^ ^^^- ' "^^^^s. left high 



CASES FOLLOWED UP 



47 



quarter is B ; that of the girls is B +, In the second quarter the 
median mark of the boys is B — ; that of the girls B. Consid- 
ering all the cases, we find the median high-school mark of the 
boys to be B — , equivalent to 80 percent, and that of the girls 
to be B, equivalent to 85 percent. Eleven percent of the boys 
and seven percent of the girls made straight A or A — records 
during their high-school courses. It should be noted that all of 
these A and A — records were made by pupils in the top half 
of the distribution, and that 75 percent of such records were 
made by those in the top quarter. 

2. Discussion of Table XII (a). — Data regarding high- 
school pupils who did not finish their high-school education are 



GKNi^RAI, SUMMARY OF TABLE; XI BY QUARTERS 

(Showing number and percent of cases in each quarter with- 
drawing from H. S., graduating from H. S., in higher 
institutions, etc.) 









., . 








Median 
H. S. 

Marks 


Number 


OP Cases 






graduate 
from 
H. S. 


from 


higher 
institu- 
tion 


Median 
I.Q. 


Boys 


Girls 




QUABTER 


H. 


Total 




No. 


% 


No. 


% 


No. 


% 


Binet 


Group 


% 


Letter 


No. 


% 


No. 


% 




1st, (top).. 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 




4 

6 

20 


00. 
13. 
20. 
67. 


3 

7 

16 

8 


9. 
20. 

47. 
24. 


30 
22 
11 

4 


45. 

33. 

16. 

6. 


125 

113 

100 

91 


128 

112 

107 

97 


87. 
85. 
80. 
78. 


B + 

B 

B- 

c+ 


23 
19 
14 
16 


32. 
26. 
20. 
22. 


10 
14 
19 
16 


17. 
23. 
33. 

27. 


33 
33 
33 
32 




30 


100. 


34 


100. 


67 


100. 


106 


109 


84. 


B 


72 


100. 


59 


100. 


131 



SUMMARY OP HIGH-SCHOOI. MARKS (TABI^i; XI ) BY QUARTERS 





Boys j 


Girls 




Marks 


Quarters 


Total 


Quarters 


Total 


Total 




1 


2 


3 


4 


1 


2 


3 


4 




A, A- 
B + 
B 

B- 

c+ 



c- 

D+, D 

E, Inc. 


5 

5 

7 

5 
1 







3 
2 
4 

4 
3 
3 








1 
2 

2 
2 
3 

1 
2 

1 




2 

4 
4 

1 



4 
1 


8 

8 

15 

15 

10 

7 

1 
6 
2 


3 
3 
3 

1 








1 
6 
3 

2 
2 








2 
9 

2 
3 
1- 


2 






4 

1 
3 
2 

4 
2 



4 
11 
19 

6 
8 
3 

4 
4 



12 
19 
34 

21 
IS 
10 

5 

10 
2 


Totals 


23 


19 


14 


16 


72 


10 


14 


19 


16 


59 


131 


Median H. S 
Median I. Q. 


. Mark, 
, Boys, 


Boys ' 
Binet, ' 


B-", c 
109". 


r80%. 




Median H. S. Mark, 
Median I. Q., Girls, 


Girls " 
Binet, ' 


B", or { 
103". 


J5%. 



48 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

assembled in Table XII (a). In the summary of Table XI it 
appeared that 87 percent of those who did not complete their 
high-school course were found in the lower half of the ability- 
distribution. In Table XII (a) we note that the median I.Q. of 
the group is 94, with the range of the middle 50 percent from 88 
to 99. If an intelligence quotient of 95 is taken as the lower 
limit of average ability, then 50 percent of the cases in this table 
have less than average ability. 

Achievement in high-school subjects is likewise found to be 
below average. On a percentile basis the median mark for the 
entire 131 cases falls at 84 percent, which is nearer a B than a 
B — . The median mark for the 30 cases in Table XII (a) is C — , 
or 70 percent — 14 points below the average for the entire group. 
Thirty percent of the pupils in this group have marks of D+, D, 
E, or Incomplete. An average of D+ implies failure in about 
one-half of the subjects taken, where the pupils were in school 
more than one-half of a school year, or a very low grade of work 
in all subjects taken. 

The relation of school progress and intelligence to social 
status will be taken up later, but it should be observed in passing 
that 30 percent of the pupils reported in Table XII (a) did not 
give their fathers' occupations, and that 63 percent did not give 
either vocational ambitions or educational plans, although they 
were asked to give all these data at the time the mental tests 
were given. 

A final point of interest in this table is the length of time 
spent in high school. Six dropped out at the end of the first half 
year, and five of these had I.Q.'s below 94. An additional 11 
dropped out by the end of the first year, making 57 percent of 
elimination after one school year. Seven more were elirninated 
by the end of the second year, making a total elimination of 
80 percent up to that time. The remaining six pupils secured 
2y2, ^, or 3y2 years of high-school training before dropping out. 
Investigation of individual cases fails to reveal any pronounced 
relationship between the economic status of the home and the 
elimination of the pupil. The outstanding causes appear to be: 



CASES FOLLOWED UF 



49 



aeo 

o3'-i 

o a 


Labor, unsk. 
Salesman 
Ret. H. S. 
Auto mech. 
Office wk. 
Collector 
Labor, unsk. 
Housewife (mar.) 
Not known 
Clerk, paint st. 
At home 
Labor, unsk. 
Labor, unsk. 
Housewife (mar.) 
Dressmaker 


a 
a 

o 


Not known 
Office wk. 
Housewife (mar.) 
Labor, unsk. 
Housewife (mar.) 
Office wk. 
Housewife (mar.) 
Labor, unsk. 
Housewife (mar.) 
Gardener 
Carpenter 
Not known 
Housewife (mar.) 
Not known 


Time in 
H. S. 

(years) 


i-H M CO C^ iM "-1 1-1 1-H C^ M 1-1 T-H T-l(N 


1— 1 


'^ fOi-H IM CO C^ --1 M --1 i-H 


Educational 

plan in 

H. S. 


flip— 1— H aj.Ti oj-Sh'T^ aj 4) aJrt v qjTi 
bC^ ^ bCi <i> bC ^ .bCbCbC.bCbC. 

o § § o a o aiJ o o o . o o . 


a 

> 
5c 

O 


a . a a^ a a a aaaa . 

«-— <U <D o "^ <0 <0 O V <U Vri 
bD^ bCW)^ bDbCMg tsCbDbC bO^ 

030 o:-; ooooooooa 


Vocational 
ambition 
in H. S. 


a^aaa ^E.aa oaa'sj 

s -sb^ •sb-a-sb a .9 •&•& g ^ -a'sb 1 

^ o-c o o o a-^ o o 3 «J o o^ 


a 

O 


a aa aaa aaaa 

> <[,> >^ > > >, V > > > > >ii 
'Mo Mbc'g'bcbc ho-a'ao m bc m © 

oajooxjoooSooooi^ 


a 

M O 

-a Q, 
o 


Gardener 
Not given 
Clerical 
Carpenter 
Bus. retired 
Contractor 
Not given 
Engineer, st. 
Not given 
Paint store 
(m) Nurse 
Not given 
Not given 
Carpenter 
Sea Captain 


a 

> 

SId 

o 


Farmer 
Gardener 
Contractor 
Not given 
Contractor 
Contractor 
Nt. watchman 
Not given 
Towboat, Cap. 
Truckdriver 
Contractor 
Real estate 
Not given 
Not given 


Average 
H. S. 
marks 




Q 


1 1 1 +++ ++ 1 + 

omowOOQPwQQQoo 




00(NfO -1-1 "-hO •(NIM'H • •t>. 

r^ r-i ^^ -O • O <N • i-H 05 0> ■ -O 




• N. • OJ • -lO ■ • • • 

•05 • -00 -co • -OS • • • • 










cOTt<c<n>coeooooioor>-t^i^iy5-* 

1— 1>— lrHOOOOO05050>03050505 




(M^^OO0000l^iO»OiCiC0<N05 
Oi05050505ClOOOOOOOOOOOQOOOI> 


g 

m 


CQcqOpqOmwOOfQOmfflOO 


« 


ooomowowopqwooo 


aj . 


i-<(MCO'>!i<iOCDl>C0050'-<lNfOTtHiO 

I— ( 1— ( !-H l-< 1— 1 >— 1 


a; 

a 

CO 


I>00050'-H(NCO-*iOCOt^OOO>0 
^^^C^(M(M(N<M(NC^(NC^(NCO 



50 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

(a).lack of mental ability, leading to poor school work ; (b) lack 
of interest in school tasks, also resulting in poor school work; 
(c) social (not economic) status of the home. As to this last 
point, it was found that 85 percent of the 20 cases where the 
occupation of the father was given came from homes where the 
father's occupation ranked III or IV on the Barr Scale.^ This 
scale bases occupational ranking on the ability necessary for suc- 
cess, and not, as in the case of the Taussig Scale, on economic 
return. Hence the rank given according to the Barr Scale is 
more an indication of social than of economic status, 

3. Discussion of Table XII (b). — In this table we have a 
presentation of data regarding thirty- four pupils who gradu- 
ated from high school but who did not continue their education 
beyond that point. The mental ability of this high-school- 
graduation-only group is about midway between that of the left- 
school-to-go-to-work group and that of the entered-higher- 
institutions group, since 67 percent of the cases are found in the 
second and third quarters of the distribution in Table XL The 
median I.Q. of this group is 100 according tg the Binet Scale, but 
according to the group test the median is 107. When both the 
individual and group tests are considered, only four cases fall 
below 100 on both scales, and only one of these below 95 on 
both scales. This would indicate that only those of average abil- 
ity or better will probably complete four years of high school. 
Compared with the left-school-to-go-to-work group they rank 
six points higher on the intelligence (Binet) tests — still higher 
if group tests are considered — and in school work their median 
mark was B — , 80 percent compared with C — , 70 percent for the 
left-school group. 

In social status the high-school graduation group stands 
higher than the left-school group. The occupation of the father 
is given in 29 of the 34 cases ; and the occupational rank in 18, 
or 62 percent, of these cases is III or IV, compared with 85 per- 
cent of the same ranks for the left-school group. 

' See Appendix No. III., p. 122. 



CASES FOLLOWED UP 51 

In addition to the fact that 23 percent more of the high-school 
graduation group had fathers with occupational ranks of II or 
better, and a higher average intelligence than the left-school 
group, another factor may have had some influence on the tend- 
ency to complete high school, i. e. the cherishing of definite 
vocational and educational plans. Twenty-eight, or 82 percent, of 
the high-school graduation group entertained vocational ambi- 
tions, and 25 of them, or 73 percent, had educational plans re- 
quiring high-school graduation. On the other hand, 63 percent 
of the left-school group had no such plans, or at least were not 
sufficiently interested to indicate what they might be, when given 
an opportunity to do so. That there is a direct correlation be- 
tween educational plans involving graduation from high school, 
and tendency to complete four years of high-school work is sup- 
ported by the studies of Vandenberg.* The inference is at least 
plausible that if all high-school pupils were given guidance in the 
formulation of educational and vocational plans, more of those 
of average or better than average ability would remain in high 
school until the four-year course was completed, while those of 
below average ability would at least be helped to devote their time 
in high school to subjects more suited to their needs than the 
ones most of them now attempt and fail in. Lack of proper 
guidance is without doubt a factor too often entirely overlooked 
in discussions of elimination. 

4. Discussion of Table XIII (a) and (b). — The 67 cases of 
those who completed high school and then continued their edu- 
cation in higher institutions are considered in Tables XIII (a) 
and (b). The 47 now attending Stanford University are in- 
cluded in (a), and the 20 attending other institutions in (b). 
The Stanford group was treated separately because it selects both 
men and women students on the basis of scholarship, and because 
records indicating success in university work were available for 
the Stanford cases. 



* Inglis, Alexander, J. Principles of secondary education. Boston, Hough- 
ton Mifflin, 1918. p. 137. 



52 



O <M 

•_r3 05 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



c3 o3 

a a 



c3 



.Oi.OJ ^ 



^ cd cj 

■ a a a 

.-^ 2 (u Qj <u fl 



> *4-l k>< '-' t-l t+H Ct^L U-t C3 






)-i^ 



M 



a « g^ a 



^ 



-1 QJ > 



J3 
w 03-3,^5,^ (^ a tSl CO qs q^ ^ •'SkH 






§.a. 



.•+J ^- .-g ^- „• §.-s_;.t^ §.-£ §-fl g^--H- 

t/20a!00>tcOa3>aJb.,i;--5>00 

.S tC-S to CC+=-— 73 .£ -kJ .S +i "^ (H -t= (C 72 

fl 3 fl 3 30 1=1 3 CO fl O « O O 3 3 






> " 



S G ss 

„ , , _ o fl o 

p^ ^ p !z; m H ;z>t) PQ iz; t) !2; 



sa 

43 => 



fl.o 3-d. o a 3. 



-o CO a 



53 fl . 

§a q 



o3' 



a3 bb bbbb!yD-^.a fee's -c, --rlfl, 9-r,,iabbiD 

Sa)aiQjcio°^<u^o^o3So<uai 

>-lMcKMajlz;gc/2H,;zig;z;;z;HrZ;a2aQ 



bC 
o) 3 

'" . aj bc . 2 
bc-3-S -"S » '^'f.'^ g-S" 



•23 feW_> 



S5 c) ?^ 



bO^ U) 

=^0 

bO .•- . 

3 O -P o 

(P 03 O "'J 



qhw^^£^SS^Sh^^^§ 






!:! O !r! 



c3 a> 



S 3 a.t.t 3 oj 302 S a; ro -g tj g,> S^ 

• «J K^-e-S ^3t73lo3-^^o3-*sgto+?bC 
'ls'^^^2<^Oo3-^3tD3a;3o3ai03 



s S5 b 



w 



-I 

'3 -tJ 
O <X> 

•TO 

aj 3 s3.ti 3 cS°'SS o3 



^^ w aj (-1 (D 

'»«3c_:S!n.£Js 



C 9 *H o 



tH fcj (U 






s 3 



a> o o oj 



bC . « 



+ I I + I ++++ I +++ I 

fflPQ<:pq<i100pqpQmOOO«00<Jl 



I + I I + I + 1 






i-iS 



(NINl-Hl— Ir-Hr-lT-li— n-iOOOOOOOO 



OOOOSOOOOOOt^CDlOiO-^i-HOOO 



WOOOOOWOOP3WOOOMOO 



O 



oowfflOMmmoomooP5a3P3 



i-KNCCTtfinOtxCOOiOi-HlMCO-^iOCOt^ 






CASES FOLLOWED UP 



53 



B I 

w ^ 

o s 

w 

i: Pi 
< w 

o ^ 
> o 

ss 

t-H vj 

Ph P 

P Q 

PL. W 

w 






S Q -^ 

< P 

o 

w 



rt 



Univer- 
sity 
marks 


+++ 1 +++ 1 ++ 1 1 1 + 1 1 + 


Graduated 

from 

H. S. in: 


1= ^ ^ ^ :: ^ :: :: :: ^ :: :: 2 :: :: ^ :: ^ ^ :: 


Educational 

plan in 

H. S. 


+i .+J -tS -ti _-4J -|J .+J _-(J +S -IJ -iJ -+J . a _-+J +S +S +S _-U -fJ -tJ -kJ 

"B'a'a'a'a'a'a'a'a'a'a'a a"B"B"a"a"a"a"a"a 
p)t)pt)DJ::3p)pp);:ipp<tJt)Pt)pp)ppp 


Vocational 
ambition 
in H. S. 


Civ. Eng. 
Mech. Eng, 
Farmer 
Banking 
Mech. Eng. 
Housewife 
Not given 
Mech. Eng. 
Teacher 
Teacher 
Lawyer 
Mus. Teacher 
Naval Offic. 
Chemist 
Physician 
Mech. Eng. 
Not given 
Mech. Eng. 
Mech. Eng. 
Min. Eng. 
Not given 


a 

Oi O 
'^^ 

-in Q, 

o 


Civ. Eng. 
Physician 
Farmer 
Lumber Mer. 
Univ. Prof. 
Univ. Prof. 
Univ. Prof. 
R. R. Pres. 
Not given 
Univ. Prof. 
Real estate 
Transfer bs. 
Real estate 
Real estate 
Univ. Prof. 
Not given 
Minister 
Physician 
Univ. Prof. 
Min. Eng. 
(m) Stenog. 


Average 
H. S. 
marka 


+11 +il++l 1+ 11 

mffl-<i:QeQmm<<-<pqfqweq<ii««<jm«<iffl 




■0(MOTtl(NO«00 • •* 00 00 lO 00 (M (M CC t^ • I> 
• Tfl CO •* CO CO CO TiH CO -(MCOC^lCOlMeOCOCCKN -(N 

■T-ll— ll— ll— 11— ll— ll-Hl— 1 •!— Il-^T— ll— ll— ll— ll— ll— ll— 1 -l-H 




(Nl^iOTtlTf<C0C<J.-.^i-(0it^lr^»OiOrH-^f0f0f0(N 
■<*fOCOCOfOfOCClfOCOCO(M(M(M(N(N(N(M<N(M(N(N 




pqpqfflmwowmoompqmmocQmwcqmo 


6 





54 



PSTCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCS 






++ 

WP5 



+11 I ++ + +1 111+ 






o 



w 



^4 Tt^ ^^ Tt^ tH ^^ '^ ^* ^J^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^t^ ^r ^^ ^*^ ^J^ ^J^ ^^ ^J^ ^^ ^^ ^^ 






>!>. 






,-*^ ."*^ ."'^ -tj _-+j -ij HJ -u *i +s _-tJ _■*= +i .-^ ,-^ .+^ ^—s S .ti ."S S ."tS 

'rn'oo "m 'S 'm 'm 'S'SS "S 'm "m 'm 'm 'oQ 'cc 'cQ b. O >"cd cc >-"ai 



"?3 



o 

u 



c3 fl . 
g 002 



a c! 
> > 
'Sc'Sc 

o o 






fe 



o » a^ o o^ o o 0-c3 S^rt-E^ o «J O S^o S 



W 

w 

< 



JM O 



2 2 



CO 



o o 
^ «-l ^ 

||| 



-^i' 






>-c ^ 



S SO S^ ^"^ 2^ Si 



>> .-g^ b;'g'S S g a- OT? '^b: ors >^ 









I + 



« 



+I+++II I +11+ ++ 

0<r3PQP5fflP5««<!««-<fflfflfq<1«mmcQmOP5 






O ION -N-IOOO 

^ -HO -O (N O 



• lO 00 to O lO kCi 00 l> l^ -(NOi-HC 

• ^ O "-H (N »H th OO OS -iNC^OOS 



c?: 



|« 



OSOOOOOOCDiOOlCTtiC^INi-HOOOOtOlOrOi-'QMCOCO 
i-Hi-H>-Hi— li— li— li-Hr- (t-HT-t»-(i— 1»— li— (OOOOOO05C350> 



O 



O 



P50 



ffl 



wmpqOC!fqOP5P5 0PQO«OP5mP5fflOOpamm 



CASES FOLLOWED UP 



55 









^■—^ 


v^ 




<w 


h-l 
1— 1 


<: 


X 


Ci 


w 


5? 


hJ 


O 


W 


•<f» 


g 


^ 



s 



"3 a ■ 

g.OGQ 



bCfO 
•-3 I 



5 w 



.3 • 



m o 



bO ■ OS 



oj ogaa 

^ Cl3<4-1 «4-l 

_; a o o 
o => • • 






c3 o3 

aa 



.Xh X-l tM 

02 Q tJ t::^ aj 02 



>i 



13 ' 



(O 05 > ;-X CO r > , 

!U OJ bC <o ■ 



O .r-J o . . o 



.til « 



> 



^ boS a M ?3 

O fc, CI > »H c ^^ « 
.§ ^ ^ >-g.^- > S § 



-(J . 
o3 bc a d 



C 

o 



« «w a a-g a-'.a g 
^ =3 >ji^ a Si >»a 

hJ Ph O M^S O t^ CL| o 



+ 11 + + 

ow<!m««uP5mo 



oo 
— ; -t^ 
o "3 









^1- 



>r3 o, 



02. S cS 



a " 



> §TJ. 



.-£3 






e ^ ^ ^W 
jz; .1-1 t.; l1:i tl o aj oJkS 



5W 



« 



S55 
n'Sc CO be 






03 Cl 02 '^ 

C3 tH c3 ►$ .iS h2 i- ^ >^ 

02 H CO JZiSZOPQ S 



m 






++ 11 + 

eqOP3a5«UPQpqO 



H-iffl 



fqcqOPQOmP3pqOO 



pq 



pqmooomoom 






i-KNCCT^USOiNOOOSO 



56 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

(a) Thirty-three of the Stanford cases were boys and 14 
were girls. The median I.Q. of the boys was 121 ; of the girls, 
116; of both together, 119. The median high-school mark of 
the Stanford boys was B, 85 percent ; of the girls, B-f, 88 per- 
cent, of both, B+, 88 percent. The median university mark of 
the boys was C+j 78 percent; of the girls, C+, 78 percent; of 
both together, the same. In explanation of the relatively low 
university marks, compared with the high-school marks, it may 
be said that most of the Stanford cases are just completing their 
first year of university work and have had many new adjustments 
to make. The three boys making A — records in the university 
are of the first group tested in 1916-17. Two of them completed 
high school in 3^ years and are now juniors. The other one 
has completed his sophomore year. 

(b) Eleven of the 20 pupils attending other higher institu- 
tions than Stanford were boys and nine girls. The boys attained 
a median I.Q. of 115; the girls, 103; both, 109. The median 
high-school mark of the boys was B — , 80 percent; of the girls, 
B, 85 percent; of both, B — , 80 percent. Combining the two 
sections, we have 44 boys with a median I.Q. of 119 and a median 
high-school mark of B, 85 percent ; and 23 girls with a median 
I.Q. of 112 and a high-school mark of B, 85 percent. The 
median I.Q, of the entire group of 67 boys and girls in higher 
institutions was 118, and the median high-school mark, B, or 
85 percent. 

The influence of social status on tendency to go on to higher 
institutions is much more evident in the case of the group under 
discussion than in relation to either of the other groups. We 
have noted above that only 15 percent of the left-high-school 
group and 38 percent of the high-school-graduation group had 
fathers whose occupations ranked I or II. Forty-four of the 
students now in Stanford gave fathers' occupation, and 42 of 
these, or 95 percent, ranked I or II. Seventeen of those in other 
institutions gave fathers' occupation, and 12 of these, or 70 per- 
cent, ranked I or II. Sixty-one of the combined groups gave 
fathers' occupations, and 54, or 89 percent, had occupations 



CASES FOLLOWED UP 



67 



ranking I or 11. The difference between the first two groups 
and the third, in the matter of social status, is so striking as to 
leave little doubt concerning the part played by that factor in the 
selection of those who go on to higher institutions. In other 
words, when we find that eight out of ten of those who left school 
before completing the course and six out of ten of those who 
just graduated from high school come from a social status rep- 
resented by fathers' occupational rank of III or IV, while ap- 
proximately nine out of ten of those continuing their education 

SUMMARY OF TABI^KS XII (a) AND (b) AND XIII (a) AND (b), 

WITH REFEREINCE TO INTe;IvI,IGENCE; of PUPIIvS AND RANK 

OF fathers' occupations ON THE BARR SCAI,E 

FOR MEASURING VOCATIONAI, STATUS 



I. Q. OF Pupils 


Rank of Fathers' Occupation 
ON Barr Scale 


Total 


Median 
Rank 




V 


IV 


III 


II 


I 




125 or over 

115-124 









1 




1 

2 



7 
9 
14 
9 


10 

8 

9 

11 

7 


7 
10 
3 
2 



18 
25 
21 
28 
18 


II 
II 


105-114 


II 


95-104 


III 


79-94 


III 


Totals 

Percents 



0.0 


4 
3.6 


39 
35.4 


45 
41.0 


22 
20.0 


110 
100.0 


II 



beyond high school come from a social status represented by 
fathers' occupational rank of I or II, we are warranted in ac- 
cording social status a prominent place among the factors which 
determine the probable educational future of a given high-school 
pupil. 

The tendency, frequently noted by investigators, for a posi- 
tive correlation to be found between general intelligence and 
social status, is discoverable in the data presented in the three 
tables already discussed. This will be evident from the follow- 
ing summary : 

None of the 110 giving fathers' occupation has a father with 
an occupational ranking of V. Only 3.6 percent have occupa- 
tions ranking IV. Sixty-four of the pupils have I.Q.'s ranging 



58 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



FIGURE 3 

SCHOOIv 



COMPARISONS OF GROUPS 
)f it 



NOT COMPI.ETING HIGH 
COMPI.ETING HIGH SCHOOIv ONLY," AND 
GOING TO HIGHER INSTITUTIONS" 



fa) Mental Levels. 

Uedlan I.Q. of gr oup . 



(b) Social Statue. 
Per cent, whose fathers' 
occupations ranked X or 11-, 




Did not Did coni- 
finlsh plete 
H. S. K. S. 



Entered 
higher 
institu- 
tion 



Did not 
finish 
H. S. 



Did com- Entered 
plete higher 
H. S. institu- 
tion 



(•e) Vocational Amhitiona 
Per cent of cases having 
Yo<;ational am'bltions. 



(d) Educational Plans. 
Per Cent, of cases having 
Educational pliuiB 




Did not Did com- 
finleh plete 
H. S. H. S. 



Entered 
higher 
institur- 
tion 



Did not Did com- Entered 
finish plete higher 
H. S. K. S. institu- 
tion 



from 105 to 142, comprising the groups, "better than average," 
"superior," and "very superior." The fathers' occupation in 47 
of these cases, or 75 percent, ranks I or II. There are 46 cases 
with I.Q.'s ranging from 79 to 104, embracing the average and 
belov^r average groups in ability. Twenty of these have fathers 



CASES FOLLOWIED UP 50 

with occupational ranking of I and II, making 43 percent for the 
"average" and "below average" I.Q. groups, compared with 75 
percent for the three upper groups. While the range of fathers' 
occupations is too limited to yield a high coefficient of correlation 
between social status and the intelligence of children, these data 
at least support the conclusion that where there is a combination 
of high intelligence and superior social status great impetus is 
given to the "go-on-to-college" idea. 

When we compare the vocational ambitions of the in-higher- 
institutions group with those of the graduation- from-high-school 
group, we find 82 percent of the latter indicating vocational pref- 
erences, and 78 percent of the former. But when it comes to 
signifying definite educational plans, 91 percent of the college 
group and only 73 percent of the high-school group outlined plans 
for education beyond high school. Again, of those among the 
college group who told of their educational plans, 89 percent are 
now carrying out the identical plans mentioned by them when 
they were first-year high-school students. This is a still further 
confirmation of the previously suggested conclusion that definite 
plans, in mind at the beginning of a high-school course, tend to 
stimulate those expressing them to continue in training until the 
plans are consummated. When to definiteness of vocational and 
educational plans are added the further factors of better than 
average ability and superior social status the chances become 
eight or nine to one that the plans and ambitions will be carried 
out successfully. 

5. The value of two mental scales. — A word should be added 
regarding the advantage of having at least two tests of mental 
ability before assuming that anything approaching an accurate 
indication of the individual's mental ability has been discovered. 
In 105 of the 131 cases discussed in this chapter, both the Binet 
and a group test were given. A glance at Table XI, where all 
the cases are assembled according to rank on the Binet Scale, 
will indicate a very marked agreement between the two tests; 
but a sufficient amount of disagreement will also be found to 
suggest caution in basing judgments on a single test. Fifteen 



60 PSTCEOLOGICAL TESTS AN7) GUIDANCE 

points on the Alpha Scale, according to the Kohs-Proctor norms, 
constitute the equivalent of a mental-age year. Using this stand- 
ard of variation on the 105 cases in Table XI, where both tests 
were applied, we find that in only 13 cases, or 12 percent of the 
total, was there a difference greater than the equivalent of one 
mental-age year. 

One or two illustrations will suffice to show the advantage 
of the two tests from a guidance point of view. Cases 110, 111, 
112 and 113, Table XI, all tested I.Q., 93 on the Binet Scale, and 
an assumption might have seemed valid that they did not rep- 
resent promising university material. On the group test, how- 
ever, they earned I.Q.'s of 125, 112, 101, and 95, respectively. 
All of them came from homes where the rank of the fathers' 
occupation was I or II, and they are all now in college — three 
of them in Stanford and one in the College of the Pacific, at 
San Jose, California. On the other hand, where both tests agree 
either on the high or the low I.O. basis, the school work and 
educational destiny revealed by the sixth year follow-up usually 
correspond. Cases 2 to 11, inclusive, all stood high on both tests, 
and all of them are now found in the university. Cases 121, 
124, 126, and 128, all made low scores on both tests. None of 
them completed more than two years of high school. In any 
event, whether the tests agree or not, the test results should be 
considered as tentative, not final, and the counselor's attitude 
should constantly be that of open-mindedness. Test results must 
themselves be thoroughly tested against other valid criteria. 

Summary and Conclusions 

1. The discussion covers cases of 131 high-school pupils, 
tested with Binet and group scales in 1916-17 and 1917-18, and 
followed up until June 1, 1923. 

2. The influence of a university community is evident in the 
fact that 77 percent of the 131 graduated from high school and 
66 percent of the high-school graduates went on to higher insti- 
tutions, compared with 35 percent graduating and 42 percent of 



CASES FOLLOWED UP 61 

high-school graduates going to higher institutions in the country 
at large. 

3. Arrangement of all cases in rank order, Table XI, brings 
out the fact that 87 percent of the cases in the did-not-complete- 
high-school group were in the lower half of the distribution; 
that 67 percent of those who did not go beyond high school were 
found in the second and third quarter; and that 78 percent of 
those going to higher institutions were found in the top half. 

4. The median I.O. of those who did not complete high 
school, Table XII (a), was found to be 94,_ The median high- 
school mark was 14 points below the median for the entire group 
of 131. Neither educational nor vocational plans were indicated 
by 63 percent of this group. Elimination of 80 percent had taken 
place by the end of the second high-school year. Lack of mental 
ability, lack of interest, and social status were the most potent 
causes of elimination. 

5. The group completing high school only. Table XII (b), 
had a median I.O. of _10Q„and a median school mark of 80 per- 
cent. Occupations of 38 percent of the fathers ranked I or II. 
Vocational ambitions were expressed by 82 percent and educa- 
tional plans by 73 percent of the cases. Average ability and bet- 
ter than average social status were factors in ensuring high-school 
graduation. 

6. The 67 cases continuing education in higher institutions. 
Table XIII, were found to have a median I.Q. of 118 and an 
average high-school mark of 85 percent. The occupations of 
fathers ranked I and II in 89 percent of the cases. Positive cor- 
relation was also found between the father's occupation and the 
intelligence of the child. Average or better than average ability 
and superior social status appear to be the most vital factors in 
determining continuation of education beyond high school. 

7. Marked agreement between Binet and Group I.Q.'s was 
found. In 92 of 105 cases where both tests were applied — 88 per- 
cent — there was agreement within one mental-age year. Cases 
where one test indicated a low level of ability and the other an 
average or higher level are found doing college work success- 



mj PSTCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

fully. Where both tests agree, either high or low, subsequent 
educational progress tends to bear out the diagnostic implica- 
tions of the mental tests. In any event, tests should be measured 
against other valid criteria. 



CHAPTER V 

THE USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS IN THE VOCA- 
TIONAL GUIDANCE OF HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS 

The use of psychological tests as a basis for the prediction 
of probable school success, and in the educational guidance of 
high-school pupils has been discussed in Chapters II, III and IV. 
The use of such tests in the vocational guidance of high-school 
pupils will be discussed in this chapter. 

The EmpIvOyment Manager and the VocATioNAiy 

COUNSEEOR 

The application of psychological tests to the selection of men 
for particular jobs is well along in the experimental stage.^ The 
employment manager has demonstrated the value of such tests 
when used in the selection of employees. If the tests are carefully 
devised to discover whether the applicants have certain essen- 
tial mental qualifications for the kind of work they will be called 
upon to perform, and if final selection is made from the few 
who make high scores in the tests, the results are likely to be 
satisfactory to the employer. When in addition to specific mental 
tests, appropriate trade or performance tests are given, the em- 
ployment nianager or personnel expert can select from the highest 
25 percent of applicants with reasonable assurance that they will 
make good at the tasks assigned to them. These tests tend ef- 
fectively to sift out the undesirables, to reduce the amount of 
labor turnover, and to secure for the employer a higher grade 
of employees, 

The person who selects men for a particular occupation needs 
only to know the qualifications for success in that occupation. 
He can plan his tests with a view to eliminating all those who 
do not measure up to the established standard. If only five out 
of one hundred applicants are selected and they all prove to be 



* Link, H. C. Employment psychology. New York: Macmillan Co., 1919. 

63 



64 PSYCHOLOGICAL Ti:STS AND GUIDANCE 

adapted to their work the tests by which they were selected are 
counted as satisfactory. The ninety-five rejected applicants do 
not concern the employment manager. 

The vocational counselor, however, has to think of the ninety- 
five as well as the five. His field is a broad one. He is called 
upon to advise people possessing every variety of fitness to enter 
every possible kind of occupation. It would be manifestly im- 
possible for the vocational counselor to give adequate trade or 
psychological tests corresponding to the infinite variety of occu- 
pations open to American youths. 

It is true that he must avail himself of every possible scientific 
aid in arriving at his conclusions. His preparation will neces- 
sarily include a wide knowledge of occupations, and special train- 
ing in the discovery of occupational aptitudes. But he should 
never persuade himself or lead others to believe that he is able 
to chart unerringly their abilities and give them an absolute voca- 
tional classification. The successful counselor will understand 
at the outset that he is a guide and not a dictator, and that he 
is dealing with probabilities and not with certainties.^ 

OccuPATioNAi, Levi;IvS of InTEIvUGFNCE 

Among the factors which the counselor must take into ac- 
count in estimating the probability of a person's success in an 
occupation, the intelligence level is one of the most important. 
If we accept Stern's definition of intelligence as a working basis 
for the discussion of the subject, there can be no question of the 
vital connection between intelligence and vocational success. 
Stern says :^ "Intelligence is a general capacity of an individual 
consciously to adjust his thinking to new requirements : it is gen- 
eral mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life." 
Given a high degree "of mental adaptability to new problems and 
conditions of life" coupled with energy, persistence, and reliabil- 



''Kitson, H. D. "Vocational guidance and the theory of probability," 
School Beview, 28:143-50, February, 1920. 

' Stern, William. The psychological methods of testing intelligence. Bal- 
timore, Warwick & York, 1914, p. 3. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 65 

ity, it would be reasonable to assume that one's range of possible 
vocational success would be wide. Conversely, given a low level 
of intelligence, even though the other qualities mentioned are 
present, one's range of possible vocational success would be 
greatly restricted. 

We have already gone far enough in the development of in- 
telligence tests to justify the statement that individual levels of 
intelligence can be discovered with approximate accuracy. The 
next step, so far as vocational guidance is concerned, is to dis- 
cover whether or not there are occupational intelligence levels, i.e. 
levels of intelligence more or less characteristic of the workers in 
a given occupation. That there are discoverable differences in 
the intelligence levels of workers in the various occupations is 
suggested by the findings of the Division of Psychology, Sanitary 
Corps, United States Army.* 

Table XIV is derived from the chart found on page 23 of the 
pamphlet. Army Mental Tests. The median ratings of this chart 
are changed from the letters "A," "B," etc., to the raw scores on 
the Alpha Army Scale (which range from to 212). For each 
of the 43 occupations selected from the 72 shown on the chart, 
the median score is given, as well as the range of the middle 50 
percentof the scores. The top line of the table would then read : 
laborers, median score, 35 ; range of scores made by the middle 
50 percent, 21-63. It should then be understood that 25 percent 
of the laborers scored less than 21 points, while the top 25 percent 
scored over 63 points out of a possible 212 points. The chart 
was made up from the returns of approximately 36,500 men, and 
the data were taken from the soldiers' qualification cards. 

Figure 4 illustrates graphically the spread of the middle 50 
percent of the scores on Army Alpha by occupational groups. 
There is considerable overlapping. The unskilled, semi-skilled, 
and skilled labor groups differ but little as to the beginning of 
the middle 50 percent of scores (21, 23, and 26 respectively). 
But there is a distinct difference in the upper limits, which are 



* Army viental tests, methods, typical results, and practical applications. 
Washington: Government Printing Office, November, 1918. 



66 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

63, 70, and 95 respectively. The beginning of the middle 50 per- 
cent of the business and clerical group is nearly as high as the 
upper limit for the unskilled labor group, and the beginning of 
the middle 50 percent of the professional group is higher than 
the upper limit of the skilled labor group. 

If the scores of the entire number of men examined by the 
Division of Psychology, Sanitary Corps, of the United States 
Army could be grouped by occupations the final results of com- 
pilation would probably show some deviations from the medians 
and middle 50 percents given in Table XIV. But the general 
tendencies therein indicated would no doubt be confirmed. There 
would be found more or less clearly defined levels of intelligence 
in the various occupations, corresponding roughly to the amount 
of intelligence necessary to succeed in them. There would be 
much overlapping and within each occupation a wide range of in- 
telligence would be found. But in the occupational groups above 
unskilled labor one would expect to find critical scores^ or points 
below which occupational success could not be expected.^ In the 
professional group, for example, one would expect to find the 
greatest number of occupational failures among the lowest 25 
percent, i.e., among those who made scores ranging from to 98. 

Application to Guidance of High-School Pupils 

How a knowledge of individual and occupational intelligence 
levels may be utilized in the vocational guidance of high-school 
pupils can be illustrated by the data presented in Table XV. In 
this table 930 pupils in eight high schools are distributed accord- 
ing to vocational ambition and scores made on Army Scale Alpha 
and Examinations a and b. The different occupational choices 
have been divided into five groups : agriculture, mechanical and 
industrial, business and clerical, unclassified,"^ and professional. 



* Thurstone, L. L. " Mental tests for college entrance, ' ' Journal of Edu- 
cational Psychology, 10:129-41, March, 1919. 

' Cowdery, K. M. "A statistical study of intelligence as a factor in voca- 
tional success," Journal of Delinquency, 4:227, November, 1919. 

' Most of the occupations belonging to this group are called ' ' pro- 
fessional" by the United States Census Bureau. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 



67 



TABLE XIV. OCCUPATIONAI. INTElvI^lGENCE I.EVEES, BASED ON 
ARMY PSYCHOEOGICAI, TESTS OF 36,500 MEN. AI,PHA SCAEE 



Occupations 



Median Score 



Range of Middle 50 Percent 



Laborers (Unskilled) 

Semi-skilled Labor 

Cobblers 

Teamsters 

Farm workers 

Barbers 

Horse-shoers 

Skilled Labor 

R. R. shop-mechanics . . . 

Bricklayers 

Cooks 

Bakers 

Painters 

Blacksmiths , 

Bridge-carpenters 

General carpenters , 

Butchers , 

Locomotive enginemen . . . 

Machinists 

R. R. conductors 

Plumbers , 

Tool-makers , 

Auto-repairmen 

Chauffeurs , 

Tool-room-experts 

Policemen-detectives 

Auto-assemblers 

Ship-carpenters 

Business and Clerical 

Telephone operators 

Concrete const'n foremen . 

Photographer 

General electrician 

Telegraphers 

R. R. clerks 

General clerks 

Mechanical engineers 

Bookkeepers 

Dental officers 

Mechanical draughtsmen. 

Stenographers 

Accountants , 

Professional 

Civil engineers 

Medical officers 

Army chaplains 

Engineer officers 



35 



21 to 63 



39 


23 to 67 


41 


23 to 68 


42 


24 to 70 


43 


22 to 70 


44 


25 to 70 


45 


26 to 83 


48 


23 to 81 


49 


28 to 79 


53 


35 to 83 


53 


31 to 79 


54 


29 to 83 


55 


27 to 84 


57 


33 to 85 


58 


33 to 85 


59 


33 to 82 


61 


33 to 86 


62 


40 to 84 


62 


38 to 87 


63 


41 to 88 


63 


41 to 89 


63 


38 to 90 


64 


43 to 88 


64 


44 to 89 


65 


44 to 97 


66 


49 to 95 


70 


58 to 99 


75 


48 to 116 


77 


52 to 104 


82 


58 to 110 


84 


59 to 107 


92 


66 to 116 


96 


74 to 123 


98 


63 to 133 


99 


78 to 126 


106 


84 to 130 


112 


79 to 134 


115 


93 to 142 


117 


101 to 145 


125 


98 to 147 


130 


101 to 165 


150 


109 to 173 


157 


134 to 184 



68 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



The professional group covers 50.5 percent of the choices, 470 
cases; unclassified, 11.2 percent, 104 cases; business and clerical, 



Approximate occupational intelligence levels: 



1. Unskilled labor 

2. Semi-skilled 

3. Skilled labor 

4. Business and clerical 

5. Professional 

igo 
i8o 



Median 35, Middle 50% 21 to 63 



42, 

61, 

96, 

140, 



23 to 70 

26 to 95 

58 to 145 

98 to 184 




Unskilled 
Labor 



Skilled 
Labor 



Business and Professions 
Clerical 



figure; 4. SHOWING SPREAD OF MIDDI^F 50 PFRCFNT OF CASES, 
TABLE XIV, BY OCCUPATIONS 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 



69 



TABI^i: XV. VOCATIONAI, AMBITIONS OF 930 HIGH-SCHOOI. PUPII.S 

DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO INTEI.UGENCE RATINGS 

ON ARMY SCAI,E AI,PHA AND GROUP 

EXAMINATIONS a AND b 



Letter rating . . . . 


C— 


C 


C-f 


B 


A 






25-44 


45-59 


60-74 


75-89 


90-104 


105-119 


120-134 


135-212 


' Total 




J I 


25^9 


50-67 


68-84 


85-99 


100-119 


120-137 


138-154 


155-237 








Choice of Occupation 




Agricui-ture 




2 


1 


5 


4 
1 


7 


10 


12 


41 






1 








1 




1 




2 


4 46 












Mechanical and In- 
dustrial 
Auto-mechanic . . . 










4 








4 


Dressmaker 










2 
3 

1 






2 


Draughtsman 






2 


5 




8 


3 


21 








1 


Contractor 










1 
1 






1 


















1 


Printer 










1 


1 
1 




2 


Aviator 










1 


2 34 


Business and Cler- 
ical 
Banker 








1 
10 
6 








1 
6 

5 


2 






3 

1 


5 
2 


22 
5 


9 

3 


7 

1 
1 


62 


Business manager . 




23 


Civil Service 




1 


Clerk (sales) 






1 


1 


1 

2 
41 


1 

1 

1 

1 

38 


3 


Manufacturer. . . . 










2 


Real estate 








1 


1 
33 


1 

25 


3 


Salesman (Tr) .... 








4 


Stenographer 


2 


2 


11 


24 


176 276 


Unclassified 
Actress 








2 


1 
3 
10 


1 
3 

5 






4 










2 
6 

1 


6 
3 


14 








2 


2 


28 








1 












1 

1 

10 

1 




1 








1 

4 


7 


1 
11 


1 
8 


1 
6 


5 








46 








1 












1 


1 


1 
1 


2 


Writer 












2 104 


Professional 
Architect 












3 






3 


Bacteriologist. . . . 












1 
3 
2 

32 

9 

2 

1 
10 
47 


1 

7 
2 
3 
44 
5 
7 
2 

10 
33 


2 


Chemist 








1 
2 


3 


3 
1 
2 
30 
3 
2 
1 


14 


Dentist 




1 




11 






5 








2 


12 


20 
2 
2 


140 








10 












20 












5 


Ministry 












1 


Physician 








1 

23 


4 

44 


11 
68 


36 


Teaching 






8 


223 470 


Totals 


2 


9 


40 


lOi 


185 


215 


189 


187 


930 



liwrv^Mf "'i^ 




/v-rc-^v. 



70 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



29.7 percent, 276 cases; mechanical and industrial, 3.6 percent, 
34 cases; and agricultural, 5.0 percent, 46 cases. 

The need for vocational guidance of high-school pupils is 
brought out very clearly by the way in which the choices are con- 



!!3 




« 
O 

(U 
Ph 

o 

to 
o 

12; 
o 

x/i 

Pi 
< 
Pk 

!^ 
o 
o 



o 
to 



CO g 

Q. tS3 



W-a ^ 



be 

PI OQ 

§ 2 

o Vi 

O § 



.S cs 



O T3 



^^ 



w 



O 'o 



^ 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 71 

centrated in the professional, semi-professional (i.e. unclassified), 
and business and clerical divisions of Table XV. These include 
31 different occupations, popularly known as "white collar jobs," 
and comprise 91.2 percent of the 930 choices. Agricultural, 
mechanical and industrial occupations include 11 different em- 
ployments, and 8.8 percent of the choices. See Figure 5. 

Vocational opportunities, as shown by the United States cen- 
sus reports,^ are just about the reverse of the distribution of 
high-school pupils' occupational choices. Agriculture and the 
mechanical and industrial arts engage the energies of 61.1 per- 
cent of the gainful workers in the United States, and only 8.8 
percent of the high-school pupils had ambitions looking toward 
these fields. Business and clerical employments enlist only 14.1 
percent of the gainful workers of the country ; and yet 29.7 per- 
cent of the high-school pupils plan to enter these fields of effort. 
In the United States census reports practically all of the occupa- 
tions designated in Table XV as unclassified are included under 
the caption "professional service." In spite of this liberal inter- 
pretation of the term "professional" only 4.4 percent of the gain- 
ful workers are found to be engaged in professional service in 
this country. Nevertheless the professional and unclassified divi- 
sions of Table XV include 574 choices, or 61.7 percent of the 
total number. 

Although it is a fact that the high school represents a rather 
highly selected group of young people from whose ranks the 
clerical, business, and professional occupations are very largely 
recruited, it is apparent that by no means 91.2 percent of high- 
school pupils will ultimately find their way into these occupational 
fields.' Furthermore for their own best good and the best good 
of the nation a great many of them should be directed toward 
the agricultural, mechanical, and industrial fields. 

The question may be raised as to the use that a vocational 
counselor might make of facts regarding the intelligence of high- 



' Thirteenth census of the United States, 1910. Volume 4: population: 
occupation statistics. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1914, p. 40. 
•See Table XIX (a) and (b), p. 82. 



72 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

school pupils such as are shown in Table XV. Assuming that 
occupational levels approximating those found in Table XIV 
have been established, the counselor could proceed on the theory 
that those falling within the lowest quarter of intelligence rat- 
ings, i. e., who make scores lower than the beginning score for the 
middle 50 percent of a given occupation, would probably have 
small chances of success as workers in that occupation. 

Take the professional group. The intelligence-score limits of 
the middle 50 percent as shown in Table XIV are from 98 to 184 
(Alpha). There are fifty cases in the professional group. Table 
XV, who made an intelligence score of less than 90 points on the 
Alpha Scale. The counselor could safely consider the cases fall- 
ing in this quarter of the professional group as doubtful. If 
teachers' estimates of intelligence and school marks confirmed 
the findings of the mental tests, he would be justified in making 
an effort to direct the thoughts of those boys and girls toward 
some other life career. 

Specific occupations treated in the manner just outlined for 
the entire professional group would yield the following percents 
of doubtful cases: draughtsmen, 23.8 percent; bookkeepers, 
21 percent; stenographers, 22.1 percent; dentists, 18.1 percent; 
engineers, 24.3 percent; lawyers, 15 percent; doctors, 13.9 per- 
cent ; and teachers, 33.6 percent. 

If by making use of intelligence ratings of individual pupils 
in connection with the intelligence levels of the occupations which 
they are ambitious to enter the vocational counselor can give 
them more accurate advice as to the life career in which they are 
most apt to succeed he should by all means make use of such 
ratings. But it will probably be pointed out that intelligence rat- 
ings are not in themselves sufficiently reliable to justify their 
use in vocational guidance. To this objection it may be replied 
that the high-school counselor has at hand means of verifying 
the results of the mental tests. He is able to secure the esti- 
mates of teachers and others who know the pupils and he has 
access to the record of their success in school tasks. Agreement 
between teachers' estimates of intelligence and mental tests, or 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 



73 



o 
to 

ON 

o 
o 

M 

H 
pq 

M 

H 



> 

w 



^ y 

M S 








^1 


< 




OO 


o 


o 


o 




O 


\0 t^ 

00 ro 


00 
00 


o 


o 


ir- 




m 


On O 


o 


o 


o 


o 
5 




O 

3 ■ 

> 

< 

O 

fa 
< 


I.Q. 

Above 
Average 


o 


MD •r-t 




o 


o 


CN 




w 


O 00 


ON 


o 


o 






I.Q. 

Average 

_ _. _ 


o 


(M 00 


ro 


o 


o 


nC 




m 




00 


o 


o 






7 

I.Q. 

Below 

Average 


o 


00 •* 


OS 


o 


o 


5 




P3 


■^ U-) 


t^ 


o 


o 


NC 




< 

w 
> 

< 


6 
I.Q. 

Above 
Average 


o 


ro Tt 


■* 


o 


o 


- 


y 


m 


IT) vo 


ro 


o 


o 


^ 


^ 


5 
I.Q. 

Average 


o 




O 
ro 


o 


o 






pa 


00 O 


lO 


o 


o 




if 


4 

I.Q. 

Below 

Average 


O 


-* '* 


;^ 


o 


o 


o 


' 


n 


r- •* 


ro 


o 


o 


Tf 




H 



> 

<; 

S 
m 

< 


3 
I.Q. 

Above 
Average 


o 


ro t^ 


O 


o 


o 


C 




w 


r^ •rj< 


lO 


o 


o 


NC 

pn; 


) - 


2 
I.Q. 

Average 


o 


■* 00 


NO 


o 


o 


OC 


i. 


m 


ro O 


•* 


o 


o 


NC 

u- 


^ 


I.Q. 

Below 
Average 


o 


O -H 


O 


o 


o 


f^ 




« 


t^ r- 


NO 


o 


o 








Rank of 

Vocational 
Ambition 




h- ( 


M 
1— 1 


> 

1— 1 


• 

> 


1 








1 

t 





4"^ 




74 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

agreement between school marks and mental tests, would greatly 
strengthen the presumption that the tests had succeeded in dis- 
covering the pupil's mental level. 

Discovery of Agreement Between Mentae Tests, Schooe 
Marks, and Vocationae Ambition 

The cases of the high-school pupils whose mental ratings and 
vocational ambitions are set forth in Table XV are redistributed 
in Table XVI in accordance with standing in school subjects, 
intelligence tests, and rank of vocational ambition. For the 
purposes of the three-way distribution, vocational ambitions are 
ranked as follows : Rank I : higher professional and executive 
positions ; Rank II : business, semi-professional, higher clerical 
positions ; Rank III : general clerical, skilled labor, etc. ; Rank 
IV : semi-skilled labor ; Rank V : unskilled labor. 

Mental age equivalents for the Army Scale ratings were 
worked out by Dr. Samuel C. Kohs and the writer,^" and from 
them intelligence quotients (I.Q.'s) were computed. The mental 
level of a child is more nearly represented by the I.Q. than by 
the raw scores on an absolute point scale because the latter take 
no account of the chronological age. 

Sex differences in rank of vocational ambition are indicated 
in column 10. There are 189 boys, or 45.1 percent of the total 
number of boys, but only 86 girls, or 16.8 percent of the girls, 
who chose vocations of the first rank. The vocational ambitions 
of 33.4 percent of the boys and 46.3 percent of the girls are rep- 
resented by Rank II, and those of 21.5 percent of the boys and 
36.9 percent of the girls by Rank III. There were none of the 
930 who chose vocations of less than Rank III. The most nu- 
merous choices of the boys were for the engineering profession 
and of the girls for stenography and teaching. 

How those whose ambitions come in the different ranks would 
probably measure up in mental ability to the demands of the 
occupations chosen can be estimated by reference to the nine pos- 

" See Appendix, p. 117. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 75 

sible combinations of I.O. and school marks. Entries in column 1 
show those who have I.Q.'s and school marks both below aver- 
age. There are 51 pupils in this group. Seven of them have 
chosen occupations of Rank I, and 18 of Rank II. Since school 
marks confirm indications of mental tests as to low mental level 
in these cases the success of these pupils in occupations of 
Ranks I or II would be open to question. 

In column 7 there are 57 cases, 16 boys and 41 girls, having 
marks above average and I.Q.'s below average. Here is an indi- 
cation that the tests did not register the full ability of the pupils, 
or that they possess qualities of persistence and other attributes 
tending to supplement intelligence as factors in successful 
school work. 

Columns 2 and 3 indicate that there are many pupils whose 
intelligence is average or above average but who do poor school 
work. Teachers are apt to rate such pupils low in intelligence. 
The mental tests give the counselor an insight into their true 
ability and enable him to employ methods of waking them up 
through the discovery of the right life-career motive. 

The cases entered in columns 6 or 9 where the I.Q.'s are 
above average and school success is average or above average 
can be considered as satisfactory, so far as intelligence is con- 
cerned, for the occupations chosen. However, the counselor can 
be of great service to the pupils in these groups through his abil- 
ity to give information as to the demand for workers, the oppor- 
tunities for advancement, the qualifications as to health, tempera- 
ment, training, etc., expected of those who enter the occupations 
selected for consideration. 

There is no purpose here to suggest that a counselor should 
always advise those who have superior ability to enter high rank- 
ing occupations. If a bright boy or girl would be more contented 
in an occupation ranking low on the rating scale, there is no occa- 
tion to urge him or her to select another simply because it ranks 
higher in popular estimation. There is room for superior intelli- 
gence In every occupation, and it would be well for the country if 
young people of superior ability were encouraged to follow agri- 



76 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

cultural, mechanical, and industrial pursuits, in order that they 
might become leaders therein. The professions are overcrowded, 
but there is always room for young people with ideas and energy 
in the food producing and industrially creative occupations. 

Summary and ConcIvUSions 

1. The use of psychological and trade tests in the selection 
of employees can be more easily shown to be effective than can 
the use of such tests in vocational guidance. The employment 
manager can "play safe" by rejecting all but the most promising 
applicants, while the vocational counselor must needs endeavor 
to give sound advice to all comers. 

2. Minute charting of abilities by means of psychological 
and trade tests is not practicable at the present time for the pub- 
lic school vocational counselor. There are far too many differ- 
ent occupations and the specific abilities of individual pupils are 
much too various to permit of accurate "pigeon-holing" accord- 
ing to manual, conceptual, and other types. Likewise a given 
combination of abilities might mean successful participation in 
any one of a wide range of occupations. 

3. The discovery of the levels of intelligence of individuals 
and of occupational groups may prove to be of great assistance 
to the high-school counselor. The data on army mental tests, 
arranged in Table XIV, indicate that there are rather definitely 
marked occupational levels of intelligence. The norms already 
suggested would probably be confirmed by a compilation of all 
available data. 

4. Application of the Army Intelligence Scale to 930 high- 
school pupils and the distribution of the cases according to intel- 
ligence rating and vocational ambitions is shown in Table XV. 
Illustration is also given of the way in which this knowledge 
might be applied to the vocational guidance of the group tested. 

5. Need of vocational guidance of high-school pupils is 
shown by the fact that the concentration of choices in the pro- 
fessional, business, and clerical occupations is out of all propor- 
tion to the opportunities in those lines as shown by the United 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 77 

States census. The demands for workers in agricultural, indus- 
trial, and mechanical pursuits should be emphasized by the 
counselor. 

6. The need for supplementary information to verify the 
findings of the intelligence tests is shown in Table XVI. The 
930 cases are distributed according to sex, school marks, voca- 
tional ambition, and intelligence. Where intelligence rating and 
school marks agree the presumption is that the intelligence level 
was approximated by the mental test. Where they do not agree 
it is a warning to make further inquiry into the matter. 

7. The employment of psychological tests as an aid in voca- 
tional guidance is in the early experimental stage, but sufficient 
progress has been made to justify their use in a negative way, i. e., 
as a means of discovering to the counselor the kinds of occupa- 
tions that a given high-school pupil would probably better avoid. 
They are useful also as a means of satisfying a counselor that 
a given pupil has the mental ability to engage in the occupation 
which he has chosen, providing other necessary factors condi- 
tioning success are present./ In any case the counselor will do 
well to remember that he is dealing with probabilities and not 
with certainties. The mental tests, if conservatively employed, 
will increase the probability that the counselor will give really 
helpful advice. 



CHAPTER VI 

RELATION OP GENERAL INTELLIGENCE TO THE 
PERSISTENCE OF EDUCATIONAL AND VOCA- 
TIONAL PLANS OF HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS 

The question is frequently raised as to the value of data 
concerning the present ambitions of high-school pupils. The 
claim is made that the answers to questions regarding vocational 
and educational plans are unreliable either because the pupil 
has no definite ideas regarding his life work or because he does 
not take the question seriousl^y. It is therefore of genuine in- 
terest to all who attempt the advisement (jf youth to know ^" 
whether and to what extent the vocational ambitions and edu- 
cational plans of boys and girls in the high school represent 
significant and abiding life interests. 

This chapter will treat the data gathered in a foiurth-year 
follow-up of the groups of high-school pupils whose vocational 
ambitions, educational plans, school success, and general intelli- 
gence scores on the group scales. Army Alpha and Examinations 
a and h, were secured during the academic year 1917-18. The 
results of the first check-up, made two years after the original 
data were obtained, are set forth in Chapters II, III, and V of 
this monograph. In the chapters just mentioned mental tests 
were discussed from the viewpoint of their adaptability in the 
educational and vocational guidance of high-school pupils. The 
fourth year follow-up presents the situation as it appeared in the 
year 1921-22, and furnishes the basis for tentative deductions in 
regard to the persistence of educational and vocational plans an- 
nounced by high-school pupils. 

Only those pupils who attended the Palo Alto, San Mateo, 
Redwood City, Mountain View, and Santa Clara high schools 
are considered in the study presented in this chapter. It was 
found to be difficult to secure information concerning cases from 
the other high schools which were included in the original inves- 
tigation. An additional item in favor of confining the fourth- 

78 



FEBSISTENCE OF PLANS 79 

year check-up to the five high schools we have named was the 
fact that there had not been a change in administrative head in 
any of these high schools during the four-year period. 

In these high schools 771 pupils had originally filled out the 
questionnaires in full and had taken the mental tests. Some 
88 of these could not be located, leaving 683 concerning whom 
reliable information could be had. The 683 cases were dis- 
tributed as follows: (a) in occupations, 272; (b) in educa- 
tional institutions beyond the high school, 290; (c) still in the 
high school, 33; (d) married, 47; (e) just graduated, plans 
indefinite, 27; (f) prevented from carrying out plans by ill 
health, 10; (g) died, 4. 

The mental age and I.Q. values hereafter referred to are 
those found in the original examination. No new tests were 
given. The Army Alpha scale was the group test employed, and 
the mental-age equivalents were derived from the Kohs-Proctor 
mental-age norms for the Alpha scale. ^ 

Persistence oe Vocationae Peans of Cases 
Now IN Occupations 

Table XVII gives the distribution of the 272 cases found to be 
engaged in occupations, according to their intelligence levels and 
also as to the relation of the present occupation to the vocational 
preference expressed four years ago. Sex differences are indi- 
cated under the captions "B" and "G." Wherever in this and 
in subsequent tables the rank of vocations is referred to it is to 
be understood that occupations are ranked from I to V as fol- 
lows: Rank I, higher professional and executive positions; 
Rank II, semi-professional, managerial, and higher commercial 
positions; Rank III, general clerical and commercial positions, 
skilled labor, etc.; Rank IV, semi-skilled labor; Rank V, un- 
skilled labor.^ 

When the data of Table XVII are summarized and expressed 
in the form of percents, the meaning of the table becomes' more 



^ See Appendix, p. 117. 

* See Barr Scale, Appendix III, p. 122, 



\ 



80 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



TABLrE XVII. REI^ATION OF OCCUPATION IN I92I-22 TO 

preference: IN 1 91 7-18 





General Intelligence — I. 
(Alpha) 


Q. 


1 


'OTALS 






80- 


-99 


100-119 


120 or over 






B 


G 


B 


G 


B 


G 


B 


G 


Both 


Vocation same as pref- 
erence stated in 
1917-18 


3 

1 


39 


28 

7 



31 


14 

4 


46 


34 

5 



31 


3 

1 



15 


5 

1 
2 
2 


20 

6 



100 


67 

13 

2 
64 


87 


Different vocation but 
of same rank as 
original preference. . . 

Higher rank 


19 
2 


Lower rank 


164 






Totals 


43 


66 


64 


70 


19 


10 


126 


146 


272 



evident. Forty percent of these former high-school pupils are 
engaged in occupations of the same or higher rank with refer- 
ence to their original vocational preference. Correspondingly, 
60 percent are in occupations of lower rank than that of the 
preference expressed in 19 17-18. The sex differences are quite 
marked, especially when taken in connection with the intelli- 
gence levels. For example, among the boys, 9 percent of those 
with I.O.'s below 100 and 30 percent of those with I.Q.'s above 
100 are engaged in occupations equal to or above their prefer- 
ence. On the other hand, among the girls, those above average 
intelligence have been no more successful than those of less 
than average intelligence in attaining their objectives. The per- 
cents are 51 for the former and 53 for the latter. In other 
words, intelligence appears to have played a greater part in the, 
case of the boys than it did in the case of the girls. 

The sex differences brought out in the preceding paragraph 
are accounted for in part by the fact that in the original survey 
the vocational ambitions of the boys ranked higher than those of 
the girls. This point will be further discussed in connection with 
Table XVIII. 



ImjH'^' r^^-- 



(L-<iJX,''tA.'' 



f 



'1 



j-cLt 



PEESISTENCE OF PLANS 



81 



As has already been shown in connection with Table XVII, the 
percent of girls with I.O.'s below lOO who were in occupations 
of their choice or in occupations of higher rank was 53, while 
the percent of boys in the same situation was only 9. In Table 

TABi^E XVIII (a) The originai, vocationai, prdferi^nces 

AS EXPREISSED IN I917-18 



T?AT>J"K" OF 


General Intelligence — I 


• Q. 


Totals 


Occupations 


80-99 


100-119 


120 or over 


Preferred 


B 


G 


B 


G 


B 


G 


B 


G 


Both 


I 


13 


2 


22 


4 


13 





48 


6 


54 


' II 


11 


23 


20 


35 


3 


5 


34 


63 


97 


III 


19 


41 


22 


31 


2 


5 


43 


77 


120 


IV 














1 





1 





1 


V 





























Totals 


43 


66 


64 


70 


19 


10 


126 


146 


272 



(b) OCCUPATIONS ENGAGED IN FOUR YEARS I.ATER (192I-22) 



Rank of 


General Intelligence — I. Q. 


Totals 


80-99 


100-119 


120 or over 


Occupation 


B 


G 


B 


G 


B 


G 


B 


G 


Both 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 




2 

14 

15 

12 




3 

50 

13 






4 

22 

30 

8 




5 

50 

15 






3 

4 

11 

1 



3 
7 






9 

40 

56 

21 



11 

107 

28 






20 

147 

84 

21 


Totals... . 


43 


66 


64 


70 


19 


10 


126 


146 


272 



/ 



r-T 



XIX (a), however, it appears that in 191 7-18 56 percent of the 
boys and 38 percent of the girls with I.O.'s from 80-99 had voca- 
tional preferences that ranked above III, while in 1921-22, 63 
percent of the boys and 20 percent of the girls in that intelligence 
group. Table XIX (b), were in occupations ranking IV and V. 
In 191 7- 18 the median vocational preference of the boys was 



82 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



Rank II ; of the girls Rank III. In 1921-22, the median occupa- 
tions of the boys was Rank IV ; of the girls Rank III. 

When we consider the group with I.Q.'s of 100 or over, we 
note that whereas about 70 percent of the boys and 55 percent 
of the girls had ambitions ranking I and II, none of either sex 
was found in occupations ranking I, and only 9 percent in occu- 
pations ranking II. In 1917-18, none of the girls and only 1.2 

table: XIX. PERCENTAGE SUMMARY OP TABI^i: XVIII. (a) ORIGI- 
NAL VOCATIONAL PREFERENCES EXPRESSED IN I917-18 



Rank of 

Occupations 

Preferred 


General Intelligence — I. Q. 






80-99 


100 or over 




B 


G 


Both 


B 


G 


Both 


B 


G 


Both 


I 


30.5 


3.0 


16.0 


42.1 


5.0 


24.0 


38.0 


4.0 


20.0 


II 


25.5 


35.0 


31.0 


27.7 


50.0 


39.0 


27.2 


43.0 


35.6 


III 


44.0 


62.0 


53.0 


29.0 


45.0 


37.0 


34.0 


53.0 


44.0 


IV 











1.2 








0.8 





0.4 


V 






























(b) OCCUPATIONS ENGAGED IN WHEN CHECKED UP IN I92I-22 



^ p-"'"' Rank of 
< vr Occupation now 
, \ Engaged in 


General Intelligence — I. Q. 


Totals 


80-99 


100 or over 


B 


G 


Both 


B 


G 


Both 


B 


G 


Both 


I 





























■ \jr^'%y ^n 


4.5 


4.5 


4.5 


8.4 


10.0 


9.0 


7.0 


8.0 


7.0 


'■^^^ -/^^vj^n 


32.5 


75.5 


58.8 


31.4 


71.0 


51.0 


32.0 


73.0 


54.0 


iV ^vJ^ IV 


35.0 


20.0 


25.7 


49.2 


19.0 


34.0 


44.0 


19.0 


31.0 


..,.. . ' V 


28.0 





11.0 


11.0 





6.0 


17.0 





8.0 



T^.rA4 



percent of the boys had ambitions ranking IV or V, but in 
1921-22, we find about half the boys in occupations ranking^ IV, 
and 1 1 percent in occupations ranking V. We find none of the 
girls of this I.Q. group in occupations ranking V, but 19 per- 
cent of them are found in occupations ranking IV. 



FEBSISTENCE OF PLANS 83 

Thejnfluence of intelligence on persistence in vocational plans 
is apparen tly discoverable, but at this stage of the investigation 
it has not yet become pronounced. Our data permit a few per- 
tinent statements. According to section (b) of Table XIX, 9 
percent of those of better than average intelligence are in occu- 
pations ranking II, while only 4.5 percent of those of less than 
average intelligence are in occupations of that rank. Again, 28 
percent of the boys with below average intelligence are in occu- 
pations ranking V, while only 1 1 percent of the boys with above 
average intelligence are in this lowest class of occupations. In 
the case of the boys, it has already been stated in connection 
w^thjlable XVII that those of better than average intelligence 
showed greater persistence in the occupations of their original 
choice. The figures were 30 percent for those with I.Q.'s of 100 
or higher and 9 percent for those with I.Q.'s below 100. 

A check-up made four years after the original survey could 
hardly be expected to reveal pronounced correlations between 
intelligence and persistence in vocational plans, but it is signifi- 
cant that there seems to be a tendency for those of below aver- 
age ability to gravitate toward occupations ranking IV and V. 
A similaF check-up, made four years hence, will probably reveal 
a much more pronounced tendency for those of above average 
ability to be found in the higher ranking occupations than is now 
the case. With reference especially to boys, it is well known that 
they have to start at the bottom in a given occupation or that 
they may even have to take some temporary job which has no 
relation to their vocational preference. 

The data here presented at least J^ends support to the suppo- 
sition that those of better than average ability will tend gradu- 
ally to approximate their vocational ambitions, while those with 
below average ability will be more apt to find their ultimate occu- 
pations at levels below their high-school plans for a life career. 
Two concrete cases will illustrate this point. A certain boy 
whose I.Q. was 92 expressed vocational preference, "Doctor of 
Medicine." He is now driving a delivery wagon. Another 
whose ambition was that of "Electrical Engineer," had an I.Q. 



84 



PSTCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



of 89. He left the high school because of failure in his work, 
and is now working at odd jobs as a day laborer. 

Illustrating the tendency of those with above average ability 
to climb to higher occupational levels, are the two cases in 
Table XVII of girls who' are following vocations of higher rank 
than their vocational preference. One, I. Q. 129, whose ambi- 
tion was to be a stenographer, is now a teacher; the other, I.Q. 
130, who was also ambitious to be a stenographer, started her 
work in that vocation, and is now a successful office manager. 

Relation of InteI/UGEnce to Training beeore 
Entering Occupations 

Table XX distributes the 272 persons engaged in occupations 
in relation to their intelligence and also in relation to the specific 
training which they had for the occupation which they entered. 



TABEE XX. RELATION BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE AND 
OCCUPATIONAL TRAINING 



Training for the 




Intelligence 


Ratings — L Q. 










80-99 


100-119 


120 or over 




Entering it 


B 


G 


Both 


B 


G 


Both 


B 


G 


Both 


B 


G 


Both 


Some in High 
School or Later 
Number 


9 
21 

34 
79 


24 
36 

42 
64 


33 
30 

76 
70 


9 
14 

55 

86 


18 
26 

52 
74 


27 
20 

107 
80 


8 
42 

11 

58 


3 
30 

7 
70 


11 

38 

18 
62 


26 
21 

100 
79 


45 
31 

101 
69 


71 


Percent 


26 


None in High 
School or Later 
Number 


201 


Percent 


74 






Total 


43 


66 


109 


64 


70 


134 


19 


10 


29 


126 


146 


272 







The girls evidently had more training for their occupations 
than the boys. This is expressed by the percent of 31 for the 
girls and 21 for the boys. Moreover, as has already been shown, 
a higher percent of girls than of boys tended to persist in their 
vocational ambitions. The character of the vocational ambitions 
of the girls may account for these facts. By far the greater 
number of girls were ambitious to fill clerical positions and 



PEBSISTENCE OF PLANS 85 

either took commercial subjects in the high school or attended a 
business college after graduation and before securing a position. 

No unmistakable relation between intelligence and occupa- 
tional training is apparent. On the one hand, more of the group 
of less than average intelligence had taken such training than 
was true of the average group. On the other hand, more of 
the superior group had occupational training than was the case 
with either of the other two groups. Differences, however, as 
revealed by the percents of Table XX are not large enough to 
be especially significant. 

The real point of interest in this table is the fact that only 
71 out of 2^2 of these former high-school pupils, or 26 percent 
of them, had any training either in the high school or after 
leaving the high school for the occupations in which they are now 
engaged. In other words, approximately three out of every 
four of them had not had any preparation whatever for their 
vocation. Either there was no vocational guidance worth men- 
tioning in connection with these five high schools, or the pro- 
vision for vocational instruction was very meager. The truth 
is that both counts of the indictment can be established beyond 
a reasonable doubt. These five high schools are under the 
shadow of Stanford University, and none of them is more than 
fifty miles from the University of California. Their location has 
caused them to stress college entrance to the neglect of vocational 
education. It is not, therefore, surprising that 74 percent of 
those who entered occupations after attending these high schools 
were compelled to do so without any specific preparation. 

7^ RE1.AT10N be:twee:n IntelIvIGEnce and Persistence 
IN Educationae Peans 

The reader will recall that 290 of the students on whom, 
after the four-year period, the data were secured were still at- 
tending some educational institution. In order to compare their 
plans as expressed in 1917-18 with their realization of them in 
1921-22, an arbitrary rating of the educational institutions they 
were attending was applied. Thus a college or university was 



86 



PSTCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



rated higher than a normal school, a normal school higher than 
a business college, etc. Table XXI shows the relation between 
the intelligence of these students and the rank of the institutions 
they were attending in 1921-22. 

In contrast with the showing of Table XVII, where it was 
found that only 40 percent of those who entered occupations were 
employed in the occupation of their original choice, Table XXI 
indicates that 81 percent of those who continued their education 



TABIvE XXI. DISTRIBUTION OP 290 PUPII.S ACCORDING TO INTElvU" 
GENCE AND PERSISTENCE IN EDUCATIONAL PEANS 





General Intelligence — I. Q. 


Totals 




80-99 


100-119 


120 or over 




B 


G 


Both 


B 


G 


Both 


B 


G 


Both 


B 


G 


Both 


Pupils Following 
Educational Plans 
THE Same as, Equal 
TO, OR Superior to 
Original Plans 
Number 


9 
64 

5 
36 


21 
62 

13 

38 


30 
63 

18 
37 


57 
85 

10 
15 


70 
86 

21 
14 


127 
81 

31 
19 


53 
98 

1 
2 


25 
83 

5 
17 


78 
93 

6 

7 


119 

89 

16 
11 


116 
75 

39 
25 


235 


Percent 


81 


Pupils Following 
Educational Plans 
of Lower than 
Original Rank 
Number 


55 


Percent 


19 






Totals 


14 


34 


48 


67 


91 


158 


54 


30 


84 


135 


155 


290 



beyond the high school are carrying out plans the same as, equal 
to, or superior to their original plans for an education. Also 
it appears from Table XXI that 89 percent of the boys and only 
75 percent of the girls are following the same or higher edu- 
cational plans, whereas of those in occupations only 26 percent 
of the boys and 56 percent of the girls were carrying out their 
original intentions. 

The difference In persistence of educational plans between 
the boys and girls is due in a measure to the fact that most 
of the boys have ambitions leading to professional occupations 
that require a college education, while a considerable number 
of girls who originally planned to go to college decided, after 



FEBSISTENCE OF PLANS 



87 



graduation from the high school, to teach and are now attending 
normal schools. 

There is a more clearly marked relationship between intelli- 
gence and persistence in educational plans than there is between 
intelligence and persistence in vocational plans. There is a 
decided rise in the percent of boys and girls following the same 
or higher educational plans as the average of intelligence in- 
creases. In the lowest intelligence group, 63 percent; in the 
medium group, 81 percent; and in the highest group, 93 per- 
cent have persisted in the same or better plans for their 
education. 



TABI,^ XXII. 



INTElvUGDNC^ OF THOSE IN OCCUPATIONS AND IN 
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 





General Intelligence — I.Q. 




80-99 


100-119 


120 or over 




Number 


Percent 


Number 


Percent 


Number 


Percent 


Group now in educa- 
tional institutions . . 

Group now in 
occupations 


48 
109 


16 
40 


158 
134 


55 

49 


84 
29 


29 
11 



There appears to be a clear-cut difference in intelligence 
between the pupils now in occupations and those in educational 
institutions beyond the high school. This fact is shown in gen- 
eral by the median intelligence quotients of the two groups. For 
those in educational institutions it is 115, and for those in occu- 
pations it is 105. The condition is exhibited in greater detail 
in Table XXII. 

In this table the reader's attention is particularly called to 
the fact that among the pupils now in educational institutions, 
only 16 percent have intelligence quotients below 100; while on 
the other hand of the pupils now in occupations, 40 percent 
have intelligence quotients below 100. At the high end of the 
range of intelligence the preponderance is reversed. In other 
words, a much greater proportion of those in educational insti- 



88 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



tutions have intelligence quotients of 120 or over than is the 
case with those now in occupations. 

Another distribution of the group in occupations — a distribu- 
tion which is not here reproduced in tabular form — brought out 
the general fact that those who left the high school to go to 
work before graduation had a median intelligence quotient of 95, 
while those who completed the high school before going to work 
had a median intelligence quotient of iii. Observe also that 
the intelligence of those who left school to go to work is 20 
points below that of the group in educational institutions. 

There is likewise considerable difference between those who 
are still pursuing their education and those who are now em- 



TABIv^ XXIII. VOCATIONAI, AMBITIONS OF THOSE; IN OCCUPATIONS 
AND IN EDUCATlONAIv INSTITUTIONS 





Rank IV 


Rank III 


Rank II 


Rank I 




Num- 
ber 


Per- 
cent 


Num- 
ber 


Per- 
cent 


Num- 
ber 


Per- 
cent 


Num- 
ber 


Per- 
cent 


Group in educational 
institutions 

Group in occupations 




1 


0.0 
0.4 


32. 
120. 


11.0 
44.0 


152. 
97. 


52.0 
35.6 


106. 
54. 


37.0 
20.0 



ployed in respect to the vocational ambitions which they had 
four years ago. Table XXIII gives the details. Although only 
one person in the occupations group expressed a preference for 
occupations of Rank IV or V, it will be seen that 44 percent of 
those in this group were content with Rank III, while only 1 1 per- 
cent of those in educational institutions looked forward to similar 
vocations. The preponderance of choice for Rank I among the 
pupils who continued their education is also worthy of note 
(37 percent as compared with 20 percent). 

Summary and Conci^usions 

1. This study represents a fourth-year follow-up on 771 
high-school pupils who had been tested for general intelligence 
and who had answered questions regarding vocational and edu- 
cational plans in 191 7-18. 



PEBSISTENCE OF PLANS 89 

2. Of these, 272 were found in occupations and 290 in 
educational institutions beyond the high school. 

3. Among those in occupations, 40 percent were employed 
at tasks ranking equal to or better than their ambitions while 60 
percent were in occupations of lower rank. More girls than 
boys were following vocations of their original choice. 

4. In the same group it was found that whereas in 1917-18, 
99.6 percent had ambitions for occupations of Rank III or 
above, in 1921-22, 39 percent were actually found in occupations 
of Ranks IV and V. 

5. The influence of intelligence on persistence in vocational 
plans was found to be noticeable but not pronounced. 

6. Only 26 percent of the boys and girls in occupations had 
had any specific training either in the high school or after leaving 
it for the occupations in which they were engaged. 

7. There appears to be a closer relation between intelligence 
and persistence in educational plans than between intelligence and 
persistence in vocational plans. 

8. In terms of median intelligence quotients, those in edu- 
cational institutions surpassed those in occupations by 10 points 
and were superior to those who left school to go to work by 
20 points. 

9. The vocational ambitions of those in educational insti- 
tutions ranked higher than the vocational ambitions of those now 
in occupations. Of those in educational institutions 89 percent 
had ambitions ranking I and II while only 55 percent of those 
in occupations had equivalent ambitions. 

10. The data presented in this study tend to support the 
theory that information regarding educational and vocational 
plans of high-school pupils while they are still in the high school 
has more significance than has heretofore been attached to it, 
and particularly that measurements of general intelligence may 
be of great value to the vocational and educational counselor 
in his work, 

11. There is also an implied indictment of the high schools 
studied, in the fact that although 41 percent of the cases fol- 



90 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

lowed up were found to have gone directly into occupations from 
the high school, only 71 out of the 272 had had any training 
in the high school for the tasks undertaken. 
4 12. Better and more systematic educational and vocational 
guidance of high-school pupils, and more careful attention to 
those who will not go on to college, are needs that seem to be 
definitely indicated by the facts presented. J^"" 



CHAPTER VII 

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND COLLEGE ENTRANCE 

Since the announcement by Columbia University that psycho- 
logical tests had been adopted as an optional means of entrance 
to Columbia College for boys suitably recommended, there has 
been widespread experimentation with that method of testing 
fitness for college. Other universities, notably the University of 
Pennsylvania, the University of Chicago, the University of Cali- 
fornia, and Leland Stanford University now employ psychologi- 
cal tests as one of the conditions precedent to the admission of 
students of maturity who have not had full high-school prepara- 
tion. A high score in a psychological examination is accepted 
as evidence of ability to undertake university work with profit.^ 

The standardization of mental tests that could be used by in- 
stitutions adopting such a policy has been progressing rapidly 
within the past three years. Dr. E. L. Thorndike of Columbia 
University has developed and is perfecting his "Intelligence Ex- 
amination for High School Graduates" f and Dr. L. M. Terman 
of Stanford University has published his mental test for high- 
school pupils.^ The Otis Absolute Point Scale* and the Army 
Alpha Scale^ have already been widely used for testing large 
groups of college and university students. 

All first-year students at Stanford are now required to take 
the Thorndike College Entrance examinations, after admission. 
Dr. L. M. Terman is making a careful study of the college suc- 
cess of new entrants in relation to their scores on the Thorndike 
tests. Upon the results of this investigation will hinge the deci- 
sion as to whether psychological tests shall be included among 
the present requirements for admission to the university. 

Before abandoning the traditional entrance requirements, col- 
lege and university authorities will want to be assured that, as a 



^See Chapter VIII. 

* See Appendix, p. 120. 
'' See Appendix, p. 119. 

* See Appendix, p. 120. 
^ See Appendix, p. 119. 

91 



92 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

means of predicting possible success in college work, psychologi- 
cal tests have at least equal value v^ith the record of the four 
years of preparatory work now required. The writer's contribu- 
tion to this discussion will consist of the presentation of the data 
regarding 93 young people who were given the Alpha Army 
Test in 1917-18 while still in high school and who entered Stan- 
ford University after graduation from high school. 

In Table XXIV the cases of these students are arranged in 
quarters according to rank in intelligence quotients." Column 1 
gives this rank order ; column 2, the intelligence quotients ; col- 
umn 3, the high-school scholarship rating. (All high-school 
grades were given numerical values — 1 for "A," 2 for "B," 
etc. — and averaged. ) Columns 4 to 9 inclusive indicate the quar- 
ter hours of university marks earned by each student while at 
Stanford. Column 10 shows the total number of hours taken; 
column 11, the number of honor points; and column 12, the 
scholarship rating in university work.'^ The period of university 
work covered was that of the first three quarters (or that of the 
freshman year). 

Rei^ation of Rank in Inti;i,i,ige;nce to 

SCHOIvARSHIP IN CoivIvDGE 

The summary of the 23 cases falling in the first quarter indi- 
cates that the median intelligence quotient was 127; that the 
median high-school scholarship was 1.9 (or a trifle better than 
B) ; and that as to ratings at the university 47 percent of the A's 
but only 7 percent of the failures, belonging to the entire 93 stu- 
dents, were allotted to the first quarter. In addition to this, 
33 percent of the honor points came to the students in this quar- 
ter, and their average scholarship rating in university courses 
was 1.89. 



•All I.Q. 's are computed on the basis of the Kohs-Proctor mental age 
norms for the Alpha test. See Appendix, p. 117. 

'This scholarship rating is secured by dividinp: the total number of reg- 
istered hours into the honor points earned. Throe honor points are given for 
a grade of " A " ; two for a grade of * ' B " ; one for a " C " ; none for " D " 
or '*E". The highest possible rating (all "A's") would be 3.00; the lowest 
(all ''D's" or "E's") would be 0.0. A rating of "1.0" is average. 



COLLEGE ENTRANCE 



03 



TABI.E; XXIV. RDI^ATION BETWEEN RANK ORDER IN PSYCHOIvOGI- 

CAIv EXAMINATION AND SCHOEARSIIIP IN HIGH SCHOOL AND 

UNIVERSITY (work of THE FIRST THREE QUARTERS) 



Rank 




H. S. 


Number of Hours Indie 


xted 






Univer- 


Accord- 




Schol- 




Grades at University 




Total 


1 loiKjr 


sity 


ing to 
I. Q. 


I. Q. 


ar- 














11 Lir.s 


I om ts 


.Schol- 




ship" 


















arship 








A 


B 


C 


D 


Cond. 


Fail. 






Rating'' 


1 


2 


3 


// 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


1 


138 


1.7 


5 


29 


11 


3 








48 


84 


1.75 


2 


136 


2.2 


23 


8 


9 











40 


94 


2.35 


3 


135 


1.8 


5 


30 


10 











45 


85 


1.89 


4 


134 


2.2 


8 


15 


12 


4 








3!) 


()6 


1 . 69 


5 


133 


1.8 








29 


6 





3 


38 


29 


. 76 


6 


132 


1.6 


3 


13 


10 


15 








W 


45 


1.10 


7 


131 


1.0 


31 


19 














50 


131 


2 , ()2 


8 


130 


1.3 


20 


10 














30 


80 


2.66 


9 


129 


1.2 


33 


13 














4() 


125 


2.71 


10 


128 


2.4 


5 


19 


15 


5 


(J 





44 


()8 


1 . 54 


11 


128 


2.2 


5 


4 


16 


5 


5 


2 


37 


39 


1 . 05 


12 


127 


1.9 


15 


33 














48 


111 


2.31 


13 


127 


1.7 


11 


21 


14 











46 


89 


1,93 


14 


126 


1.3 


25 


11 


8 











44 


105 


2.40 


15 


126 


2.9 


1 


25 


17 





3 





46 


70 


1 . 52 


16 


125 


2.6 


(J 


9 


26 





7 


4 


46 


44 


0.95 


17 


125 


2.5 


7 


23 


8 


1 


5 


(J 


44 


75 


1.70 


18 


125 


1.9 


6 


8 


17 





(J 





31 


51 


1.66 


19 


125 


2.8 


5 


34 


5 











44 


88 


2.00 


20 


124 


2.9 


1 


20 


16 


5 








42 


59 


1.40 


21 


123 


1.4 


14 


16 


7 


8 








45 


81 


2.80 


22 


122 


1.5 


15 


18 


11 











44 


92 


2.09 


23 


122 


2.6 


24 


22 


3 











49 


119 


2.43 


Totals, 


First 


Quarter 


262 


400 


244 


52 


20 


9 


987 


1,830 


1.89° 


24 


122 


1.8 


5 


11 


19 


11 








46 


56 


1.22 


25 


121 


1.3 


17 


6 


2 








(J 


25 


65 


2.60 


26 


121 


2.2 


14 


22 


8 











44 


99 


2.25 


27 


120 


1.1 


28 


14 














42 


112 


2 . 57 


28 


120 


1.1 


6 


29 


5 


5 








45 


81 


1.80 


29 


120 


2.8 


2 


23 


17 





5 





47 


69 


1.47 


30 


120 


2.7 





15 


20 





5 


5 


45 


50 


1.10 


31 


119 


1.7 


5 


8 


14 


8 


5 


5 


45 


45 


1.00 


32 


118 


2.4 





15 


19 


4 


;i 


1 


42 


49 


1.16 


33 


118 


1.0 


8 


35 


4 











47 


98 


2.08 


34 


118 


1.5 


12 


25 














37 


86 


2.32 


35 


117 


2.4 


8 


8 


29 


1 








46 


m 


1.50 


36 


117 


2.0 





25 


13 


5 








43 


63 


1.46 


37 


116 


2.1 





18 


22 








(J 


40 


58 


1.45 


38 


116 


2.1 





28 


11 


5 








44 


67 


1.52 


39 


116 


2 . 5 


5 











5 


5 


15 


15 


1.00 


40 


116 


1.7 


10 


21 


8 


3 








42 


80 


1.90 


41 


116 


2.4 


3 


12 


18 


10 





4 


47 


51 


1.08 


42 


115 


1.9 


20 


17 


7 











44 


101 


2.29 



94 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

TABivE XXIV (Continued) 



Rank 




H.S. 


Number of Hours Indicated 






Univer- 


Accord- 




Schol- 




Grades at University 




Total 


Honor 


sity 


ing to 
I. Q. 


I. Q. 


ar- 














Hours 


Pnin t*a 


Schol- 




ship* 
















X UllXOo 


arship 








A 


B 


C 


D 


Cond. 


Fail. 






Rating*" 


1 


2 


3 


4 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


43 


115 


2.0 





30 


11 











41 


71 


1.77 


44 


115 


3.0 





24 


12 


10 








46 


60 


1.30 


45 


115 


2.3 


5 


26 


14 











45 


81 


1.80 


46 


113 


2.2 


17 


21 


11 











49 


104 


2.12 


Totals, 


Second 


Quarter 


165 


433 


264 


62 


23 


20 


967 


1630 


1.52° 


47 


113 


2.7 


10 


7 


23 


8 








48 


67 


1.40 


{Mediari-Y 
























48 


113 


3.0 





6 


15 








8 


29 


27 


0.93 


49 


112 


2.1 


6 


9 


24 


4 








43 


60 


1.40 


50 


112 


2.0 





6 


8 


10 


8 


12 


44 


20 


0.45 


61 


112 


2.6 





19 


16 


5 





5 


45 


54 


1.20 


52 


111 


3.2 


9 


18 


9 


10 








46 


72 


1.56 


53 


111 


3.0 





8 


27 


8 








43 


43 


1.00 


54 


111 


3.0 








2 








9 


11 


2 


0.18 


55 


110 


1.8 


10 


28 


5 











43 


91 


2.11 


56 


no 


2.8 


7 


11 


13 


10 


7 





48 


56 


1.16 


57 


110 


2.4 


3 


24 


19 


4 








50 


76 


1.53 


58 


110 


1.0 


16 


18 


8 











42 


92 


2.20 


59 


110 


2.3 


5 


13 


29 











47 


70 


1.49 


60 


110 


3.0 





9 


22 


12 





3 


46 


40 


0.87 


61 


110 


2.0 


7 


18 


10 











35 


67 


1.91 


62 


110 


3.1 





9 


19 


5 


8 





41 


37 


0.81 


63 


109 


2.2 





13 


10 


7 








30 


36 


1.20 


64 


109 


3.3 


2 





10 





4 





16 


16 


1.00 


65 


109 


3.0 





10 


1 


8 


5 


9 


33 


21 


0.63. 


66 


108 


3.3 


3 


4 


16 


10 








33 


33 


1.00 


67 


108 


3.0 





15 


32 


3 








50 


62 


1.24 


68 


107 


3.0 





15 


8 


10 


3 





36 


38 


1.06 


69 


107 


3.0 





23 


10 


10 








43 


56 


1.30 


70 


107 


2.7 





10 


35 











45 


55 


1.22 


Totals, 


Third 


Quarter 


68 


286 


348 


116 


35 


46 


899 


1124 


1.20° 


71 


106 


2.2 





5 








13 





18 


10 


0.55 


72 


106 


2.6 








38 


3 





4 


45 


38 


0.84 


73 


106 


3.0 








5 


11 


2 


3 


21 


5 


0.24 


74 


106 


2.9 





9 


29 


5 








43 


47 


1.09 


75 


106 


2.2 


9 


17 


14 








3 


43 


75 


1.74 


76 


106 


2.5 


10 


15 


9 


7 








41 


69 


1.70 


77 


105 


2.2 


13 


31 


5 











49 


106 


2.16 


78 


105 


2.7 





5 


34 


5 








44 


44 


1.00 


79 


105 


3.0 





2 


16 


5 


5 


17 


45 


20 


0.44 


80 


105 


3.3 


10 


26 


7 











43 


89 


2.07 


81 


105 


3.3 








6 


8 








14 


6 


0.43 



COLLEGE ENTEANCE 

TABLE XXIV {Continued) 



95 



Rank 
Accord- 
ing to 

I.Q. 


I.Q. 


I.Q. 

Schol- 
ar- 
ship 


Number of Hours Indicated 
Grades at Univei;sity 


Total 
Hours 


Honor 
Points 


Univer- 
sity 
Schol- 


A 


B 


C 


D 


Cond. 


Fail. 


arship 
Rating*" 


1 


2 


3 


4 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


82 
83 
84 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 
91 
92 
93 


104 

104 

103 

102 

100 

100 

100 

96 

95 

92 

90 

82 


2.6 
3.0 
3.0 
4.0 
1.0 
4.0 
1.0 
2.8 
3.6 
2.9 
4.0 
2.7 




3 



7 


6 




10 
18 
24 

6 
12 

3 
25 
13 

3 

10 
10 

3 


5 
13 
19 
17 
26 
19 

4 
30 
18 
16 
16 




8 
9 

5 
5 

14 


9 
8 

15 









1 




5 




7 
4 

3 

5 

3 


5 
10 


30 
44 
46 
31 
43 
42 
36 
46 
30 
45 
46 
13 


25 
49 
76 
29 
50 
25 
75 
56 
24 
54 
36 
6 


0.83 
1.11 
1.65 
0.93 
1.16 
0.59 
2.09 
1.22 
0.80 
1.20 
0.78 
0.46 


Totals, Fourth Quarter 


58 


247 


346 


117 


26 


64 


858 


1014 


1.18° 


Grand Totals 


563 


1373 


1225 


355 


104 


139 


3759 


5665 





"1.0 is the highest and 4.0 the lowest high-school scholarship rating. 
bS.O is the highest and the lowest university scholarship rating. 
"Median scholarship rating for quartile. 
■•No. 47 is the median student according to intelligence quotients. 

The corresponding figures for the fourth quarter contrast 
with those of the first quarter. For example, only 10 percent 
of the A's awarded to the 93 students were earned by the 22> stu- 
dents whose intelligence quotients were in the lowest quarter. On 
the other hand, 46 percent of all the failures occurred among 
these students. The general condition with respect to university 
marks is shown in Figure 5. Curve I is for the students whose 
I.Q.'s were in the first or highest quarter; curve II is for those 
whose I.Q.'s were in the second quarter; and so on. The sig- 
nificant fact to be observed is that curves I and II tend strongly 
to slope downward and to the right, while curves III and IV slope 
upward. Indeed, the pairs of curves form a rude X. This X is 
obscured by two perfectly explainable causes. The first is the 
tendency to "condition" capable students who have technically 
failed — generally because of some unusual circumstance. This 
tendency causes curves I and II to show an irregular rise at the 



96 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



m 
W 

< 

O! 

m 



X 

w 

< 
In 

O 

Pi 
< 



> 

X! 
X 

W 

w 
<; 



S i O Q, 


OKNOC 


> ir 


5 O 


O 


^ >o-=J 


00iO(MC 


5 t^ 


tH 


-* 




T— 1 I-H 1— 1 I- 




^ T-H 


1-H 










"co 










->-= 












CO 050t> 


(> 


) t^ 


^_, 




- COIMfN'- 


H <i 


5 CO 












+3 










o'lS if ^ 










CDcD'^* CV 


CS 


CO 


(N 


S O O O 


(MIMiMCs 


"■ 


5 TjH 




^ ^w 












"3 

fin 


t^'* co<x 


I— 


05 


O 


H 


.-HCO-^ 


Cs 


1> 




O 












<< 












« 












o 


73 












pl 


05(NTt<ir 


1- 


Ci 


O 


(1h 


o 


■-KNOOCS 


^ 


lO 




< 


O 










W 












6h 
O 












P 


ioi>coa' 


(N 


CO 


<M 


« 


I-H 1—1 CO C 


or 


<£> 




H 












cq 












S 


































O 


OiMcoa 


CS 


CO 


(N 


h^i 


(M C^ (M CS 


^ 


•O 




<i 












H 












o 
H 






















o 


m 


OilM T-H t^ 


^ 


00 


I-H 




C^COiM 1- 


CC 


CO 




R 












z 












1^ 






















« 














'ii 


t^05 (MC 


CC 


(M 


IM 


TtHCM rH r- 


1> 


(M 




S 'J^ 










.Sa2_2 a 


oiT-Hoa 


c 


OT 


t^ 




T-H(M CO(M 


(M 


(N 


(N 


a 












b-r^O't 


(N 


t^ 


CO 


C^.-iT-iC 


OJ 


O 


T-H 


T-H tH t-H t— 


T— 


1-H 


T-H 


§- 










aj 














a; 


9 












> 




^ 












I-H 


o 


c3 










I-H 






S 










I-H 




C 


O" 










t: 

c 


g 


.2 




1— 1 1— 1 1— 1 1> 


c 


hH • 


« 








I-H 


1— H 


^ 


I-H 


I-H 
1— 1 


S 



.N 



COLLEGE ENTRANCE 



97 



point representing "conditions." The second cause M^hich makes 
the curves irregular also has to do with the grade of "condi- 
tioned," Curve IV drops sharply at this point. Instructors hav- 
ing dull students whose work has not been clearly of passing qual- 

Pepcent 
50 




LEGEND- 

1 First Quartile IQ'sIE2-I38 

II Second Quartile IO's II 3-122 

Ill Third Quartile fO's 107-11 3 

IVFOURTH QUAPTILEIQ'S 82-107 



MAQKS ABC D CoND. Fail 

FIGURE 5. PERCENT OF EACH UNIVERSITY MARK RECEIVED BY 
QUARTII.es I-IV. data FROM TABEE XV 

ity tend to withhold the "condition" and to fail them without 
reprieve. With these rather easily explainable limitations, Fig- 
ure 5 makes clear the fact that the high-school students who 



98 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

received the better half of the intelligence ratings secured many 
high marks in the university and few low ones, and that the 
exact reverse was true with respect to the high-school students 
who receive the lower half of the intelligence ratings. 

The reader's attention is also directed to the contrast between 
the figures given in Table XXV for the cases above the median 
(quarters I and II combined) and the figures for the cases below 
the median (quarters III and IV combined). From every view- 
point afforded by Table XXV and Figure 5 it appears that the 
Stanford students with I.Q.'s of 113 to 138 did work in the uni- 
versity that was distinctly superior to the work done by those 
whose I.Q.'s ranged from 113 down to 82. 

The ''Criticai. Score," or Inteeugence Levee Beeow 
Which Success in Coeeege is Probeematicae 

The median I.O. of the first-year high-school pupils has been 
shown to approximate 105, that of high-school graduates 111, 
and that of those going on to college 116.^ Table XXIV shows 
the median I.Q. of the 93 university students therein tabulated 
to be 113. For the purposes of this discussion it will be conven- 
ient to divide the I.Q. range into five sections, as follows : I, over 
125, superior; II, 110-124, above average; III, 95-109, average; 
IV, 80-94, below average; V, below 80, inferior or defective. 

If the median I.Q. of college freshmen is found to lie between 
110 and 116, we would expect a priori, to find that those who 
tested below 110 would furnish the larger proportion of failures. 
In Table XXIV there are 31 cases where the I.Q. falls below 110. 
These 31 cases (one-third of the total number) furnish 52 per- 
cent of the total number of hours of failure, and 63.1 percent of 
the total number having scholarship ratings below 1.00, or aver- 
age. This showing would seem to indicate that in order to do 
average or better work in college it is necessary to have "better- 
than-average" intelligence, i.e., an I.Q. of 110 or above. 

It should also be remembered that the data gathered in 
Table XXIV represent only the first three quarters of university 

* Chapter II, p. 27. Also Chapter IV, p. 58. 



COLLEGE ENTBANCE 99 

work, corresponding to the freshman year. If the same process 
of selection takes place in college that we have shown to take 
place in high school, we should expect the median I.Q, of college 
graduates to be 120 or over. This would mean that many of 
those having just average intelligence, who are able to do the 
work of the freshman year with a fair degree of success would 
be likely to be eliminated before the senior year in college. That 
such would be the case seems to be a fair inference from the 
scholarship records of those whose I.Q.'s fell below 110 in 
Table XXIV. Those having just average intelligence would oc- 
cupy the same relative place, so far as elimination from college 
is concerned, as those having below-average intelligence occupy 
in the high school.* The probability is strong that from 60 to 
80 percent of them will be eliminated during the college course. 



'fi 



CoiviyEGE Entrance by High-SchooIv Marks or 
Mentai. Tests? 

From the data presented in Table XXII there appears to be 
a close relation between rank in mental tests and scholarship rat- 
ings in university work. A point that needs further discussion 
is whether mental tests would be as reliable a basis for the selec- 
tion of college students as the record of four years in high school. 
Or, to state the problem differently, could the mental tests be 
safely substituted for the high-school scholarship record as a 
basis for admission to college? 

Tables XXVI and XXVII show respectively the correlations 
between intelligence quotients and university scholarship ratings, 
and between high-school and university scholarship ratings. It 
should be remembered that the high-school marks represent rat- 
ings based on all marks received during four years of high school ; 
that the university ratings are based on the first three quarters 
of university work; that the mental tests were given in 1916- 
17, while the students were still in high school; and that only 
one group mental test, the Army Alpha, was employed. 



See Tables VI (a) and VI (b), p. 25. 



100 



FSYCEOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



In Table XXVI there are ten cases where the I.Q. is above the 
group median, "110-114," and where the scholarship rating is 
below the group median, "1.25-1.49," but only two of the cases 
fall below "1.00," which stands for average scholarship. 

Below the I.Q. group median there are six cases which show 
a scholarship rating above the scholarship rating median, but 
none of these has an I.Q. below 100. 

TABIvE XXVI. CORREI.ATIONS BETWEEN INTElvI^IGENCE QUOTIENTS 
OF 93 STANFORD UNIVERSITY STUDENTS AND THEIR UNI- 
VERSITY SCHOEARSHIP RATINGS 



I. Q.'s by 


University Scholarships Rating 




Alpha 
1916-17 


0.00 
0.24 


0.25 
0.49 


0.50 
0.74 


0.75 
0.99 


1.00 
1.24 


1.25 
1.49 


1.50 
1.74 


1.75 
1.99 


2.00 
2.24 


2.25 
2.49 


2.50 
2.74 


2.75 
2.99 


Totals 


135-139 
















2 




1 






3 


130-134 








1 
1 


1 
1 

2 
4 
3 

8 
2 

1 
1 


"2 
3 
3 
1 


1 

4 

"2" 
2 
2 
1 


2 

1 

2 

.... 


.... 


5 


125-129 








1 
1 
3 

1 


1 
1 
1 
3 
2 
1 


2 
2 
2 


11 


120-124 








11 


115-119 










15 


110-114 


1 


1 


2 

1 


3 

1 
2 
1 
1 






17 


105-109 


1 


2 








19 


100-104 








7 


95-99 












2 


90-94 






















2 


85-90 

























80-84 




1 






















1 


























Totals 


2 


4 


3 


10 


23 


9 


12 


8 


9 


7 


5 


1 


93 



Median I. Q. group, 110-114. 
Median scholarship rating, 1.25-1.49. 
Pearson coefficient of correlation, 0.495. 
Probable error, 0.0526. 

In Table XXVII there are nine cases of students above the 
median group in high-school scholarship and below the median 
group in university scholarship. Three are below "1.00" in uni- 
versity ratings. On the other hand, there are eight who fall be- 
low the median in high-school scholarship and who stand above 
the median in university scholarship. But the general agreement 
between high-school grades and university work is sufficient to 
give the relatively high correlation of 0.615. 

In discussing an ideal examination of the intelligence of can- 
didates for college entrance. Dr. E. L. Thorndike^® says that the 



" Thorndike, E. L. "Intelligence examinations for college entrants," 
Journal of Educational Eesearch, 1:329, May, 1920. 



COLLEGE ENTRANCE 



101 



score should correlate as closely as possible with future achieve- 
ment in college, and further : 

This maximum correlation will not be i.oo, since achievement in 
college is due in part to health, to freedom from personal worries, and 
to various moral qualities as well as to intellect. . . . Within the re- 
stricted range of those who complete a high-school course and actually- 
become candidates, we may expect as a maximum 0.55 to 0.65 possibly 
more. A correlation above 0.50 is probably an improvement over the 
attainment of standard systems of accrediting high schools or of 
entrance to college by examination in school subjects. 



TABI,^ XXVII. CORRElvATlONS BETWEEN THE HIGH-SCHOOIv AND 
UNIVERSITY SCHGI^ARSHIP RATINGS 



High 
School 


University Scholarship Ratings 




Scholar- 
ship 


0.00 
0.24 


0.25 
0.49 


0.50 
0.74 


0.75 
0.99 


1.00 
1.24 


1.25 
1.49 


1.50 
1.74 


1.75 
1.99 


2.00 
2.24 


2.25 
2.49 


2.50 
2.74 


2.75 
2.99 


Totals 


1.00-1.24 










1 






1 


3 


.... 

1 
2 
2 


2 
3 


"i' 


7 


1.25-1.49 






<X ' ' 








5 


1 . 50-1 . 74 










2 
1 
2 






2 
2 
2 


1 
1 
1 


6 


1.75-1 99 








1 


"3' 


1 

3 






8 


2.00-2.24 




1 


1 






15 


2.25-2.49 










2 


1 


3 


1 


1 








8 


2.50-2.74 








3 


4 
5 
4 
2 


"3 
2 


2 
1 

2 






1 






10 


2 75-2 99 


"2 


1 
2 






1 






11 


3 00-3 24 


1 


3 








16 


3.25-3.49 




1 








3 


3.50-3.74 








1 
2 














1 


3 . 75-4 . 00 






1 


















3 


























Totals 


2 


4 


3 


10 


23 


9 


12 


8 


9 


7 


6 


1 


93 



Median university scholarship-rating group, 1.25-1.49. 
Median high-school scholarship-rating group, 2.25-2.49. 
Pearson coefficient of correlation, 0.615. 
Probable error, 0.0445. 

In Tables XXVI and XXVII the correlations between intelli- 
gence quotients and university scholarship, and between high- 
school scholarship and university scholarship were 0.495, P. E. 
0.0526, and 0.615, P. E. 0.0445, respectively. That is, the corr 
relation between high-school scholarship and university scholar- 
ship is higher by 12 points than the correlation between intelli- 
gence quotients and university achievement. 

This difference in correlation in favor of the high-school 
scholarship might seem to indicate that the intelligence test is 



,A 



102 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

not as reliable a criterion as the four-year high-school record of 
scholarship in determining fitness to do college work. , Such a 
conclusion would not necessarily follow. Account must be taken 
of the fact that the intelligence test given in the case of the 
93 students under consideration was given three years prior to 
the collection of data concerning their college work ; that it was 
a group test, not specifically designed for college students; and 
that no supplementary tests were given which might have cor- 
rected or compensated for errors in rating chargeable to the ad- 
mitted shortcomings of the Alpha Scale. Consequently Table 
XXIV and the correlation 0.495 represent the accuracy with 
which the person giving the Alpha Test to the pupils of the high 
schools near Stanford University in 1917-18 could have pre- 
dicted their probable high-school and university careers. He 
would have been able to pick the 50 percent, who would almost 
surely succeed, and the 50 percent from among whose numbers 
the great majority of the failures and poor students would be 
found. 

Furthermore, if supplementary group and individual mental 
tests had been given to these high-school pupils, much more re- 
liable mental ratings would have resulted and the correlation be- 
tween mental level and university work would have been consid- 
erably higher. In support of this contention two cases may be 
cited, i.e., those ranking 77 and 80 in Table XXIV. No. 80 had 
a high-school scholarship rating of 3.3, having earned an average 
of "C-f" in all high-school subjects. Her intelligence quotient 
on Alpha was 105, which is 8 points below the median for the 
group. When she was in the eighth grade she was given a 
Stanford-Binet examination and earned an I.Q. of 120, which 
corresponds more closely than the Alpha I.Q. entered in Table 
XXIV with her university scholarship rating of 2.07. No. 77 
had a high-school scholarship rating of 2.2, or about "B." His 
Alpha I.Q. was 105, but a Stanford-Binet examination taken a 
year earlier gave him an I.Q. of 115. His university scholarship 
rating was 2.16. 



COLLEGE ENTRANCE 103 

If the Stanford-Binet I.Q.'s of these two students alone had 
been used in Table XXIV instead of the Alpha I.Q.'s, the median 
I.Q. for the entire group would have been 115 instead of 113; 
and the percents of "A" grades, honor points, and high scholar- 
ship ratings coming in the upper, or above-the-median group, 
would have been considerably higher. Likewise, if these two 
cases had been entered in Table XXVI on the basis of the Binet 
I.Q., the correlation would have been approximately 5 points 
higher, or about 0.549. 

It would probably be impracticable to attempt to substitute 
mental examinations entirely for records of attainment in high 
school as a basis for determining admission to college. But on 
account of the varying standards of marking that prevail in high 
schools if is impossible to accept an "A" mark given by one school 
as the equivalent of an "A" mark given by another school. Re- 
quiring all applicants for entrance to college to take mental tests 
would give to the registrar and committee on credentials an ob- 
jective standard of judgment which would enable them to esti- 
mate with greater accuracy the abilities of those seeking admis- 
sion to institutions of higher learning. Especially would this be 
true in institutions such as Stanford where the number who 
may attend is limited, and where the number of applicants greatly 
exceeds the possible . number ol entrants. ^. 



Summary and ConcIvUSions r\ tJ3''^ "" ""1^' 




1. The ability to attain a high score on an intelligence itstxj^ "Vyl 
such as the Army Alpha is presumptive evidence of ability to 

do college work successfully. This is shown in Table XXIV by 
the proportion of "A" marks, honor points, and above-average 
scholarship ratings earned by the above-the-median group, and 
by the large proportion of "D's," conditions, failures, and below- 
average scholarship ratings earned by the below-the-median 
group. 

2. It is possible to suggest a "critical score" or intelligence 
quotient below which success in college work, or ultimate gradu- 




w y ' -^i- • odc^^--^ v^^' 



' if 



104 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

ation from college, would be open to question. Since the median 
I.Q. for college freshmen appears to lie between 110 and 116, 
and since the highest percent of failures, poor scholarship rat- 
ings, and other evidences of lack of ability to do college work 
successfully are found in the below-the-median group there is 
good reason to predict that a majority of the eliminations from 
college will come from those with I.Q.'s below the median for 
college freshmen. 

3. While mental tests may not supplant "recommended" 
high-school units as a basis for college entrance, it is safe to 
say that such tests will soon be so well standardized as to become 
a generally accepted means of making final selection from among 
those seeking to enter college. 



^v 



CHAPTER VIII 

INTELLIGENCE TESTS AS A MEANS OF ADMIT- 
TING SPECIAL STUDENTS TO COLLEGES 
AND UNIVERSITIES^ 

Standard colleges and universities have come to be almost 
unanimous in requiring at least 15 units of high-school work as 
a prerequisite to admission to regular standing. This uniform 
requirement is made on the assumption that college work is so 
organized that only those with such a minimum of preparation 
can hope to carry on successfully. 

Coincident with the fixing of uniform standards for college 
admission there has been a growing tendency to discourage the 
registration of special students. Some colleges even pride them- 
selves in their catalog announcements that no special students 
are admitted. Such a policy, if uniformly adopted, would mean 
that a great many young persons of superior ability would be 
absolutely barred from the benefits of higher education and the 
state and nation would lose many capable leaders because train- 
ing had been denied them. 

Since the close of the world war a new condition has arisen 
which has challenged the wisdom of a too rigid adherence to set 
standards of college admission. During the war thousands of 
young men left high school to enter the army or to render indus- 
trial service. When the war was over they had been so matured 
by war experiences that they did not want to return to high- 
school associations, but did desire to continue their education. 
The colleges of the country rose to the emergency and opened 
their doors to the ex-service men, regardless in most cases of 
entrance deficiencies. An opportunity was thus afforded to test 
the validity of the four-year high-school assumption, particularly 
as it applies to men and women of maturity who have had worth 
while vocational or other significant life experiences. 



* Reprinted from School and Society, Vol. 16, No. 408, October, 1922, pp. 
471-476, with the permission of the Science Press. 

105 



106 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

The writer has had an excellent opportunity to make a study 
of the problem at first hand. As counselor for 170 ex-service 
men in training at Stanford University under the United States 
Veterans' Bureau, and at the same time a member of the faculty 
committee on admissions and advanced standing, he has been in 
a position to gather significant data regarding the ability of men 
without full high-school training, and in some instances without 
any high-school training whatever, to succeed in university work. 

Stanford University definitely limits the number of men with 
less than junior standing who will be admitted in a given year. 
First choice is made from those who present 15 recommended 
high-school units, or passing grades in the Comprehensive or the 
College Entrance Examination Board examinations. Since the 
pressure to get into the university has been very great, in spite 
of greatly increased tuitions, very few places would ordinarily 
be left for men lacking full preparation. In anticipation of this 
difficulty President Wilbur asked the board of trustees to author- 
ize the admission of all disabled ex-service men outside of the 
established limits. This was done and the task of making a 
selection among the men coming under this ruling for whom ad- 
mission would be asked by the Veterans' Bureau was left to the 
committee on admissions and advanced standing. The follow- 
ing tentative minimum requirements were fixed: (1) age at 
least 21 years; (2) two years of high school; (3) a rating of 
at least "B" in a psychological examination. 

The psychological examination used during the two years 
since the above regulation went into effect was the Army Alpha, 
supplemented by the Terman Group Test of Intelligence, forms A 
and B. A rating of B on the Army Alpha represents a score of 
105 to 134. The rating of B on the Alpha Scale as one of the 
minimum requirements for special students was chosen because 
it was found by the Division of Psychology of the U. S. Army 
during the war that most of the failures in the officers' training 
camps were of men who rated below B, i.e., made scores below 
105 on the Alpha Scale. 



ADMITTING SPECIAL STUDENTS 



107 



At the close of the fall quarter, 1921-22, there had been 41 
cases admitted to Stanford in the way above described. Table 
XXVIII presents the data regarding school grade reached, hours 

TABLE XXVIII. SCHOLARSHIP RATING OF 41 SPECIAL STUDENTS, 

TRAINEES OE THE U. S. VETERANS' BUREAU, AT STANFORD 

UNIVERSITY, ARRANGED IN RANK ORDER, LOWEST 

TO HIGHEST, ACCORDING TO SCORES ON 

ARMY ALPHA SCALE 



Case 
/ No. 


Scholarship 

Grade 

reached 


Hours 

attempted 


Grade 
points 


Scholar- 
ship 
rating 


Rank 
in 

Alpha 


Average 
Scholar- 
ship rating 


1 


8th grade 


9 





0.0 


c+ 




2 


2 yrs. H. S. 


23 





0.0 


75-104 


0.0 


3 


• 8th grade 


9 





0.0 






4 


2 yrs. H. S. 


10 





0.0 






5 


2 yrs. H. S. 


64 


62 


97 






■6 


8th grade 


14 


14 


1.00 


B 




7 


3 yrs. H. S. 


40 


32 


0.80 


105-119 


0.50 


8 


3 yrs. H. S. 


14 


5 


0.35 






9 


3 yrs. H. S. 


24 





0.0 






10 


2 yrs. H. S. 


24 


28 


1.16 






11 


: 2 yrs. H. S. 


11 


3 


0.27 






. 12 


3 yrs. H. S. 


10 


15 


1.50 


B4- 




13 


3 yrs. H. S. 


60 


78 


1.13 


120-134 


1.07 


14 


3 yrs. H. S. 


28 


38 


1.35 






15 


3 yrs. H. S. 
3 yrs. H. S. 


54 


56 


1.03 






16 


12 


14 


1.12 






17 


3yrs. H. S. 


56 


62 


1.10 






18 


3 yrs. H. S. 


33 


17 


0.51 






19 


3 yrs. H. S. 


9 


14 


1.56 






20 


2 yrs. H. S. 


9 


14 


1.56 






21 


3 yrs. H. S. 


40 


63 


1.57 


A 




22 


2 yrs. H. S. 


10 


10 


1.00 


135-154 


1.35 


23 


2 yrs. H. S. 


10 


21 


2.10 






24 


3 yrs. H. S. 


12 


17 


1.42 






25 


3 yrs. H. S. 


31 


45 


1.45 






26 


3 yrs. H. S. 


52 


89 


1.90 






27 


2 yrs. H. S. 


14 


18 


1.28 






28 


3 yrs. H. S. 


23 


28 


1.21 






29 


5th grade 


29 


60 


2.07 






30 


8th grade 


8 


17 


2.13 






31 


3 yrs. H. S. 


41 


71 


1.74 






32 


2 yrs. H. S. 


10 


10 


1.00 






33 


3 yrs. H. S. 


69 


155 


2.22 






34 


1 yr. H. S. 


16 


40 


2.50 


A+ 




35 


3 yrs. H. S. 


33 


63 


1.90 


155-212 


1.93 


36 


3 yrs. H. S. 


36 


67 


' 1.86 






37 


3 yrs. H. S. 


23 


39 


1.70 


, 




38 


3 vrs. H. S. 


17 


34 


2.00 






39 


2 yrs. H. S. 


63 


111 


1.76 






40 


3 yrs. H. S. 


58 


104 


1.80 






41 


1 yr. H. S. 


39 


83 


2.13 







Note : See note 7, p. 92, Chapter VII. 



108 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

of university work attempted, grade points earned, scholar- 
ship rating, rank attained on Army Alpha, and average scholar- 
ship ratings of each group. The top line of the table should be 
read as follows : Case No. 1 had attained eighth-grade standing 
in the public schools, undertook nine hours of university work, 
earned zero grade points, a scholarship rating of zero, and ranked 
lowest in the C + (score 75 to 104) group on the Army Alpha 
Scale. 

Attention is directed to the first three cases in the table, which 
come in rank C-f- in intelligence rating. No special student was 
supposed to be admitted whose intelligence rating fell below 105, 
the lower limit of the B rating, but the writer persuaded the com- 
mittee on admissions to give these three men a trial as "may- 
attend" students. Such students have all the privileges of regu- 
lar students so far as attending lectures, taking examinations, 
etc., is concerned, but their final status depends either upon com- 
pletion of credentials or demonstration of ability to carry the 
work undertaken with success. Ordinarily the status is never 
continued beyond the mid-quarter examinations, but in the cases 
of these three Veterans' Bureau men the "may-attend" status 
was continued for an entire quarter as an experiment. None of 
the three, however, succeeded in securing regular standing, al- 
though No. 2 was given a second chance and attempted 23 hours 
in all. 

Beginning with case No. 4, all of the remaining men were 
admitted to the university as special students and remained at 
least one quarter in residence. The cases are grouped by steps 
of 20 points on the Alpha Scale and designated: B (105-119), 
B+ (120-134), A (135-154), and A+ (155-212). There is 
a progressive rise in scholarship rating, corresponding to the as- 
cending ranks in intelligence from zero for the C + group to 1.93 
for the A -]- group. 

The "critical score" of the distribution seems to be 129, ^^^ 
lower limit of the B + group. Only two of the cases, Nos. 5 
and 6, are now in the university, who made scores below that 
figure. One of the two will never be able to pull through to 



ADMITTING SPECIAL STUDENTS 109 

graduation, and the other has had a very precarious footing and 
may slip and fall out at any time since he has no margin for 
safety. 

The B + group makes a bare C average in scholarship, i. e., 
one grade point for each hour of work attempted, as represented 
by their average scholarship rating of 1.07. It is not until we 
come to the A group, making Alpha scores of from 135 to 154, 
that we find an average scholarship rating equal to the average 
for men in the university. This group averaged 1.35 in scholar- 
ship. Only one man in the A group failed in his work. No. 18, 
who had been seriously injured in an airplane smash in France 
and had not recovered his nervous balance sufficiently to con- 
centrate on his studies. 

The A + group attained an average scholarship rating of 
1.93, which is 20 points above the average for Stanford's highly 
selected group of 500 women students, and 64 points above the 
general average for all men students in the university. There 
were no failures at all in this group, although one had had only 
fifth-grade education, another only eighth-grade education, two 
had had only one year of high school and two others only two 
years of high school before being admitted to Stanford as special 
students under the conditions described above. 

A brief statement of what some of these men are accomplish- 
ing will give an idea of the way in which they are taking ad- 
vantage of the opportunities afforded by the Stanford policy of 
admitting men to the privileges of university training who lack 
full entrance credentials. 

Case No. 29. — This man had had only fifth-grade education, 
but had worked his way up in railroad service to being an office 
manager. He made a score of 155 on Alpha, was admitted as a 
special, and took 14 hours of work. He acted as clerical assist- 
ant in the writer's office for two hours a day, took part in two 
dramatic productions during his first quarter, and made a B aver- 
age in all his work or a scholarship rating of 2.00. The second 
quarter he took 15 hours of work, continued his office service, 
was leading man in two dramatic productions, was elected to 



110 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

presidency of the leading dramatic organization on the campus, 
and made a scholarship rating of 2.13, — an average for the two 
quarters of 2.07. 

Case No. 34. — This was a man of Polish birth, who while 
working as a logger had completed his elementary studies. The 
Veterans' Bureau gave him one year of secondary education and 
sent him to Stanford to prepare for civil engineering. He made 
a score of 168 on the Alpha test. He took 16 hours of work 
during his first quarter, including two heavy mathematics courses, 
and made 40 grade points, with a scholarship rating of 2.50. 

Case No. 41. — This man had had just one year of high school, 
but was admitted on a score of 183 on the Alpha Scale, and per- 
mitted to register as a special student in entomology. His first 
quarter's record won for him the distinction of being the Stan- 
ford student representative with the California Academy of Sci- 
ence expedition to South America. He has since published two 
papers in leading scientific journals embodying the results of his 
research while with the Academy of Science expedition. 

The cases above cited suggest that Stanford will one day take 
great pride in the fact that these men were enabled to secure 
their training within her walls in spite of deficiencies in secondary 
preparation. 

Assuming, for the sake of argument, that a case has been 
made out for admitting men as special students on the ground 
of worth while experiences of life and proof of adequate mental 
capacity, shall such students be permitted to graduate, and if so 
under what conditions ? 

Two western institutions, the Universities of Arizona and 
Nevada, have by faculty action expressed a willingness to grad- 
uate disabled veterans of the world war in regular course, i. e., 
without requiring them to make up entrance deficiencies, pro- 
vided they are able to maintain institutional requirements as to 
standards of scholarship and meet all other requirements for 
graduation. Both institutions require satisfactory psychological 
examination results as a prerequisite to admission. Reports from 
both institutions indicate that the plan is working satisfactorily. 



ADMITTING SPECIAL STUDENTS 111 

Stanford has adopted a plan which does not discriminate be- 
tween disabled veterans and other students. Any special student, 
admitted by the committee on admissions and advanced stand- 
ing, can graduate by making the required scholarship rating in 
not less than 225 quarter hours of work. The requirement for 
students with full entrance is 180 units for graduation. This 
means that a special student is permitted to graduate in one extra 
year. Since the institution is on the quarter basis and three 
quarters constitute an academic year, a special student by attend- 
ing four quarters each calendar year can secure his degree in 
15 quarters, or three and three-fourths calendar years. 

The advantage of giving the special student the opportunity 
of graduating by working an extra year in the university itself 
rather than requiring him to complete secondary preparation 
before entering should be obvious. These special students are 
assumed to be persons over 21 years of age. They would feel 
out of place in a high school and most of them would be unable 
to adapt themselves to conditions found in the average high 
school, but if admitted to the university they feel more at home, 
and will put forth every ounce of energy to make good. This is 
shown by Table XXIX, where 13 regular students who made 
A -j- scores on the Alpha test are compared with the 13 special 
students who made scores of A + on the Alpha Scale. The 13 
regular students whose scholarship ratings are shown in this 
table are also trainees of the Veterans' Bureau, having their tui- 
tion, book expenses and a maintenance allowance for living ex- 
penses, paid by the U. S. government. This group of 13 had 
all completed four years of high school at the time of entering 
training at Stanford, and constitute the 13 having the highest 
scores in the intelligence test, of all the Veterans' Bureau trainees 
having regular standing. Each group in the table is arranged in 
rank order beginning at the lowest. The range of scores for the 
regular group is from 170 to 186, and for the special group from 
155 to 183, on the Alpha Scale. 

It is unsafe, of course, to give undue weight to data covering 
so few cases, but it is at least rather significant that the 13 spe- 



112 



PSTCEOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



cial Students making the highest scores in intelligence examina- 
tions should have made a scholarship rating of 1.93, while the 
13 regular students making the highest scores on the same scale 
made a scholarship rating of 1.78, or 15 points lower; also that 
the average for all specials (1.45) is 7 points higher than the 
average for all the regular trainees of the U. S. Veterans' Bureau. 

TABI.E XXIX. COMPARING 13 A+ SPECIAI, VETERANS* BUREAU 

TRAINEES WITH THE 13 REGULAR V. B. TRAINEES WHO 

MADE THE HIGHEST SCORES IN THE AEPHA TEST, AS 

TO SCHOLARSHIP RATINGS IN UNIVERSITY WORK 



13 Alpha A-f- SfECiALS 



Case 
No. 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 



Totals 442 



Hours 
at- 
tempted 



29 
8 
41 
10 
69 
16 
33 
36 
23 
17 
63 
58 
39 



Honor 
points 



60 

17 

71 

10 

155 

40 

63 

67 

39 

34 

111 

104 

83 



854 



Scholar- 
ship 
rating 



2.07 
2.13 
1.74 
1.00 
2.22 
2.50 
1.90 
1.86 
1.70 
2.00 
1.76 
1.80 
2.13 



Ave. 1.93 



Range of Alpha scores of special group 
from 155 to 183. Median, 166. 

Average scholarship rating of all spe- 
cials, not counting the 3 C-f- cases, who 
were "may-attends," is 1.45. 



13 A-j- Regulabs (Highest) 



Case 
No. 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 



Hours 
at- 
tempted 



158 

105 

142 

156 

95 

64 

91 

106 

93 

79 

82 

40 

81 



1,292 



Honor 
points 



228 
112 
254 
233 
124 

73 
188 
318 
172 
208 
179 

22 
193 



Scholar- 
ship 
rating 



1.44 
1.06 
1.79 
1.56 
1.30 
1.14 
2.06 
3.00 
1.85 
2.63 
2.19 
0.55 
2.38 



2,304 Ave. 1.78 



Range of Alpha scores of regular 
group from 170 to 186. Median, 174. 

Average scholarship rating of all reg- 
ular Veterans' Bureau trainees, cover- 
ing six quarters, is 1.38. 



The presumption is at least strong that given superior intelli- 
gence, maturity and a well defined life purpose a man can suc- 
cessfully carry university work, even though he may lack the 
customary four years of preparatory work. 

There are educators who seem to be concerned lest mental 
tests become the excuse for a new doctrine of infant damnation.^ 
They hold that it is unsafe to admit, even if probably true, that 

*Bagley, F. C. "Educational Determinism; or Democracy and the I.Q." 

School and Society, 15:373-84, April 8, 1922. 



ADMITTING SPECIAL STUDENTS 113 

some of us are intellectually pint cups and others gallon meas- 
ures. It is just possible that their alarm is premature. It is a 
poor rule that will not work both ways. Perhaps too much em- 
phasis has been put upon the revelations that tests have been 
made of mental deficiencies, often on the basis of a single group 
7 test. Sweeping generalizations,! based on unreliable or insuffif^-^' 
*ycient data, to the effect that 47 percent of the white men taken 
in the draft were of moron grade of intelligence,^ tend to discredit,-* 
the whole testing program. But such errors are merely the t^Bv^ 
products of a great forward movement in education. Mental 
tests are here to stay, and on all sides are indications that the 
positive uses to which such tests may be put are being stressed. 
One of the most hopeful signs pointing toward the positive, 
as opposed to the negative use of mental tests, is the attitude of 
colleges and universities in the matter of admitting special stu- 
dents who have made high scores in intelligence tests, after the 
manner above described. Too many mental diamonds, which 
might otherwise be discovered and polished, now remain in the 
rough on account of the formal, inelastic entrance requirements 
of our colleges and universities. Psychological tests will serve 
the cause of democracy if they help to open the doors of our 
higher institutions to men and women of marked ability who 
would otherwise be barred on account of entrance deficiencies. 

Summary and ConcIvUSions 

1. The practically universal requirement of four years of 
high school for college entrance, coupled with pressure for ad- 
mission, tends more and more to exclude from higher educa- 
tional opportunities, men and women who, although capable and 
mature, lack entrance requirements. The species special student 
is in danger of becoming extinct. 

2. The world war caused many institutions to open their 
doors to special students who had been disabled in military 

'Cannon, Cornelia James. "Democracy in Question: I. American Mis- 
givings. ' ' Atlantic Monthly, February, 1922, pp. 145 ff. 



114 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

service, on the basis of mental ability, maturity, and vocational 
experience. 

3. Records of 41 such special Veterans' Bureau trainees at 
Stanford indicate that their success in university work has been 
in direct ratio of their scores on the Army Alpha intelligence 
scale. Also that the highest 13 mentally of the specials made an 
average scholarship rating 15 points higher than the highest 13 
of the regular Veterans' Bureau trainees. All specials averaged 
higher in scholarship than all regulars. 

4. In the light of such results it should become the prac- 
tice of colleges and universities to reserve a definite propor- 
tion of registrations for men and women of maturity, proved 
mentality, and definite employment objective, regardless of en- 
trance deficiencies. The case of the man. No. 29, in Table 
XXVIII, who was admitted with fifth-grade education and made 
better than a "B" average in two quarters of work will be- 
come classic as an illustration of what special students of this 
type are capable of doing. 

5. Not only should special students be admitted on passing 
satisfactory mental examinations, but they should be allowed to 
graduate on a minimum of one extra year of university work, 
without being compelled to make up traditional entrance re- 
quirements. 



APPENDIX 

I. Tut Kohs-Proctor Mdntai, Age Norms i^or the Army 

Alpha Scaee 

During the year 1917-18 the Army Alpha Scale was given 
to several thousand California school children. The children 
tested were drawn from all types of communities and represented 
every variety of social status. The high-school pupils, whose 
scores, school marks, etc., have been discussed in the preceding 
chapters were among this number. 

In dealing with adults, an absolute point scale with the total 
scores grouped into five or seven sections will give reasonably 
accurate impressions as to mental level. But in the case of chil- 
dren, most of whom are below sixteen years of age, it is desir- 
able to use the intelligence quotients, or ratio between mental age 
and chronological age. In order to assign I.Q.'s to the public 
school pupils who had been examined with the Army Alpha it 
was necessary to discover mental age norms corresponding to 
given scores earned on the Alpha Scale. 

The writer collaborated with Dr. Samuel Kohs in working 
out norms that could be employed tentatively in computing cor- 
relations between school work, teachers' estimates of ability, and 
intelligence quotients. 

The first step was to find the curve of distribution of scores 
in the Alpha Test by chronological age groups. The groups cov- 
ered six months of chronological age, i.e., from 9 years, no 
months to 9 years, 5 months in one group, and from 9 years, 
6 months to 9 years, 1 1 months in another group, etc. A curve 
for the median scores made by these chronological age groups 
was plotted. 

It was found that about seven hundred of the children who 
had taken the Alpha Scale had at one time or another been given 
the Stanford-Binet individual test. The Alpha scores made by 
these children were distributed by mental age groups and a curve 
plotted of the median scores by six-months mental age groups. 

115 



116 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

The two curves were found to correspond quite closely. There 
was a variation of from twelve to twenty points on the absolute 
scale to cover a mental age or chronological age year. For the 
years where there were at least 100 cases in each six-months 
chronological age group the number of points on the scale neces- 
sary to cover a mental age year varied only from 13 to 17. 

It was found that by allowing 15 points on the Alpha Scale 
for each mental age year, and starting with "0" score on Alpha 
as equivalent to a mental age of 9 years months, a correlation 
of over 0.90 between Stanford-Binet I.Q.'s and Alpha I.Q.'s 
was obtained. '■ . ■ 

Table XXX gives the corresponding mental age norms ac- 
cording to the Kohs-Proctor results and the results obtained by 
the Division of Psychology, Surgeon General's Office of the 
Army. Figure 6 is a graphic representation of the two sets 
of norms. 

The Army psychology norms were worked out on the basis 
of Stanford-Binet and performance tests given to army recruits 
who had also taken the Alpha Scale. Because the highest mental 
age attainable on the Stanford-Binet is 19 years, 6 months, the 
curve for these norms begins to be more and more depressed as 
mental age 19-6 is approximated. Up to age 18-0 the Army 
psychology mental ages approximate one year higher for a given 
score on Alpha than the Kohs-Proctor mental ages. The curves 
cross at age 18-0 and thereafter the Kohs-Proctor norms show 
a higher mental age for a given Alpha score than do the Army 
psychology norms. 

In Figure 7 the Kohs-Proctor norms conform to a straight 
line, because when it was found that 15 points on the Alpha 
Scale corresponded most nearly to a mental age year (the "cut 
and try" method of arriving at this approximation being em- 
ployed) the "zero" point, or point below which the median score 
of the children was "zero" was taken as the starting point. This 
was found to be 9 years, months. From this point ascending 
twelve points on the perpendicular for every fifteen points on 
the horizontal axis, the line was drawn. 



MENTAL AGE NOBMS 



117 



These norms have been applied to the Alpha scores of over 
2,000 high-school pupils and to many grade children. About 
40 percent of these pupils have been given the Stanford-Binet; 



TABI^i; XXX. MENTAI.-AGE EQUIVAI.ENTS OF AI.PHA SCORES, AC- 
CORDING TO KOHS-PROCTOR AND ARMY PSYCH0L,0GY NORMS 



Army 


Alpha 


Mental Ages According to 






Ratings 


Scores 


Kohs-Proctor 


Army Psychology 






Norms 


Norms 


D- 





9—0 


9—0 




5 


9—4 


9—6 




10 


9—8 


10—0 


D 


15 


10—0 


10—6 




20 


10—4 


11—0 


C- 


25 


10—8 


11—6 




30 


11—0 


12—0 




35 


11—4 


12—3 




40 


11—8 


12—6 


C 


'45 


12—0 


13—0 




50 


12—4 


13—3 




55 


12—8 


13—6 




60 


13—0 


14—0 




65 


13—4 


14—3 




70 


13—8 


14—6 


c+ 


75 


14—0 


15—0 




80 


14—4 


15—3 




85 


14—8 


15—6 




90 


15—0 


16—0 




95 


15—4 


16—3 




100 


15—8 


16—6 


B 


105 


16—0 


16—9 




110 


16—4 


17—0 




115 


16—8 


17—2 




120 


17—0 


17—4 




125 


17—4 


17—6 




130 


17—8 


17—9 


A 


135 


18—0 


18—0 




140 


18—4 


18—3 




145 


18—8 


18—6 




150 


19—0 


18—8 




155 


19—4 


18—10 




160 


19—8 


19—0 




165 


20—0 


19—2 




170 


20—4 


19—4 




175 


20—8 


19—6 




180 


21—0 


19—8 




185 


21—4 


20—0 




190 


21—8 


20—4 




195 


22—0 


20—6 




200 


22—4 


20—8 




205 


22—8 


20—10 




210 


23—0 


21—0 



118 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



and the correlations obtained between Binet I.Q.'s and Alpha 
I.Q.'s range from 0.80 to 0.92. 



? 

u 

4 
22-0 

e 

4 

21-0 
8 
4 

20-0 

e 

4 

19-0 

8 

4 

18-0 
8 
4 

17-0 
8 
4 

16-0 
8 
4 

15-0 
8 
4 

14-0 
8 
4 

13-0 
S 
4 

12-0 
8 
4 

11-0 
8 
4 

10-0 
8 
4 

9-0 



15 SO «B 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 16S 180 195 210 




Kohs-Prootor Horns 
Division of Psychology "Norms 



FIGURE 7. SHOWING KOHS-PROCTOR AND DIVISION OF PSYCHOI,- 

OGY, SURGieON GENERAL's OFFICE, U. S. A., MENTAI, 

AGE NORMS FOR AEPHA SCAEE 



MENTAL AGE NOBMS 119 

II. Mentaiv Tests Avaii.abi,i: for the Examination oe 

HiGH-SCHOOE PUPII.S 

1. The Stanford-Binet. — This is the Stanford Revision of 
the Binet-Simon Scale. It makes possible measurement of men- 
tality up to 19 years, 6 months, and on that account is better 
adapted to the testing of high-school pupils than any other revi- 
sion of the Binet Scale that has been published. Record book- 
lets, test-materials, score cards, etc., as well as ..Dr. Terman's 
book, The Measurement of Intelligence, which should be mastered 
by anyone who undertakes to give the Stanford-Revision, can be 
secured from Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 

2. The Alpha Group Test, Army Scale. — This was the 
group test developed by the Division of Psychology, Surgeon 
General's Office, U. S. Army and employed in the examination of 
nearly two million men. It consists of eight separate tests and 
has a total possible score of 212 points. It can be given to sev- 
eral hundred persons at once, requires about 45 minutes, and can 
be scored mechanically by trained clerical workers. Examiners' 
guides, test booklets, etc., can be had in quantity from the 
Bureau of Standards and Measurements, State Normal School, 
Emporia, Kansas. 

3. The Terman Group Test of Mental Ability. — This test 
has been developed and standardized by Dr. Lewis M. Terman, 
Professor of Educational Psychology, Stanford University, joint 
author of the National Intelligence Tests and of the Army Tests ; 
also author of the Stanford-Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale 
and books on the measurement of intelligence. This is the only 
test yet published which is especially adapted for pupils of high- 
school grade. It may also be used successfully in grades six, 
seven, and eight, and in the first year in college. The test is 
issued in two separate forms. Form A and Form B, each of 
which contains 185 problems or questions. Manual of Directions 
gives full information for giving and scoring the test. Sold in 
packages of 25, including Manual of Directions and Scoring Key, 
by the World Book Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. 

4. The Otis Advanced Group Intelligence Scale. — The Otis 



120 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

tests were among the first comprehensive group tests to be pub- 
lished before the Army Alpha Tests were released for general 
use. Mr. Otis had done more than almost any other psychologist 
in the development of group tests at the time of the organization 
of the Division of Psychology, U. S. Army. Many of the tests 
which he had already perfected were adopted as part of the Army 
group examinations a and b and Alpha. The Otis tests consist 
of ten well-selected tests arranged in booklet form, and published, 
with Manual of Directions, instructions for scoring, etc., by the 
World Book Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. These 
tests are also put up in packages of 25. 

5. Thorndike's College Entrance Test. — The original tests 
of the series of college entrance tests now being developed by 
Dr. Thorndike consisted of two forms. Form A and Form Al. 
Form A was made up of a series of 13 tests, the first ten of which 
were very similar to the 10 tests of the first Army Scale, Ex- 
aminations a and b, with a "True-False," a "Memory" for geo- 
metrical forms, designs and numbers, and a "Logical Reason- 
ing" test in addition. Form Al consists of nine tests, all in- 
volving a knowledge of literature, history, science, mathematics, 
etc., that every high-school graduate if presumed to have. It is 
Dr. Thorndike's purpose to develop new tests or series of tests 
often enough to prevent coaching on the specific items. High 
correlations between the intelligence scores earned on the Thorn- 
dike College Entrance Tests and subsequent work in colleges and 
universities have already been found. These tests are published 
by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity, New York, N. Y. 

III. The Barr SCAI.E FOR the Measurement of Voca- 
TioNAi, Status 

A scale for the measurement of vocational status was re- 
cently worked out by Mr. F. E. Barr, assisted by Miss M. B. 
Henry and Mr. E. Buckles, all at that time, 1917-18, advanced 
graduate students at Stanford University. The method followed 
in working out the scale was to write on separate cards descrip- 



MENTAL AGE NO'RMS 121 

tions of 122 different occupations, covering the most common 
vocations to be found in all lines of endeavor. Thirty different 
judges were asked to arrange the cards on which these occupa- 
tions were described in the order of the degree of intelligence 
necessary to succeed in them. For purposes of scale making oc- 
cupation "hobo" was to be ranked "0," while occupation "in- 
ventive genius" (Edison type) was to be ranked "100." Certain 
occupations were also suggested as having the probable value of 
"75," "50" and "25." The judges were asked to take these 
key suggestions and arrange the whole list in rank order. After 
the judges had ranked the occupations, the scale was worked 
out by the use of Dr. Samuel Kohs' modification of Thorndike's 
"Probable Error" method of scale making. The scale is thus 
expressed in Probable Error values, which enables one to com- 
pare directly the amount of mental ability required for success 
in one occupation (in the estimate of the judges consulted) with 
that required in another occupation. For example : Occupation 
"hobo" stands at the "0" point of the scale, while "day laborer" 
stands at point 3.62 P. E. That is to say, the day laborer stands 
3.62 P. E. values higher on the occupational scale than the hobo. 
"Inventive genius" (Edison type) stands at top of scale and rep- 
resents P. E. value 20.71, 

In order to divide the scale into ranks for purposes of com- 
paring say the occupation of the father with the occupational 
ambition of the boy or girl, we divide the highest P. E. value i.e., 
20.71 by the number of ranks we want to deal with, say 5, which 
gives us 4.14. Starting then with "V" as the lowest rank, all 
occupations falling within 4.14 P. E. values from "0" would rank 
as "V". All those falling between P. E. 4.15 and 8.28 would 
rank as "IV" ; between P. E. 8.29 and 12.42, as "III" ; between 
P. E. 12.43 and 16.56, as "11"; between P. E. 16.57 and 20.71, 
as "I". 

To show how this scale classifies occupations according to 
the ability necessary to succeed in them, a few occupations fall- 
ing in each rank in a series of five ranks, with their assigned P. E. 
values will be given : 



122 



PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 



Rank I Inventive genius (Edison type) P. E. 20 . 71 

P. E. Val. Surgeon (bke Mayo Brothers) " 19 . 73 

16.57 to Research leader (hke Binet or Pasteur). ... " 19.45 

20.71. High national officials " 18.33 

Musical or Uterary genius " 18. 14 

Great merchant or magnate " 18 . 06 

University administrator " 17.81 

Pubhsher (high class magazine) " 17.50 

Physician " 16.71 

College professor, city supt " 16 . 64 

Rank II Mining engineer " 16 . 26 

P. E. Val. Lawyer " 15.75 

12.43 to Industrial chemist " 15.42 

16.56. Minister or priest " 15.15 

Owner of large farm " 14 . 45 

Train dispatcher " 13 . 31 

Small manufacturer " 13 . 31 

Master mechanic " 13 . 29 

Druggist " 13.21 

Osteopath " 13.20 

Grade teacher " 13 . 08 

Rank III Librarian " 12.22 

P. E. Val. Trained nurse " 12.06 

8. 29 to Stenographer " 11 . 78 

12.42. Grocer, small merchant, etc " 11.51 

R. R. passenger conductor " 11 . 35 

Photographer " 10.83 

Wood and metal pattern makers " 10.54 

Undertaker " 10,21 

Salesman (clerk in store) " 9 . 72 

Carpenter, skilled mechanic ; . . " 9.37 

Electric repairman " 8 . 99 

Plumber, journejonan " 8.75 

Rank IV Harness maker " 8 . 22 

P. E. Val. Plasterer " 8.02 

4. 15 to Policeman " 7.54 

8.28. Brakeman " 7.30 

Vulcanizer " 7.02 

Switchman " 6.42 

Deliveryman and drayman " 5.87 

Dairy-hand " 5 . 59 

Bar-tender " 5.27 

Farm-hand " 4.91 

Miner " 4.29 

Rank V R. R. section-hand " 3. 60 

P. E. Val. Day laborer " 3.57 

0.0 to 4. 14. Garbage collector " 2.11 

Odd jobs, transient worker " 1 . 54 

Hobo " 0.00 



The above described scale for the measurement of occupa- 
tional status is of course only tentative and leaves much to be 
desired in the way of scientific classification and evaluation of 



MENTAL AGE NOEMS 123 

qualities essential to success in a given occupation. All that is 
claimed for it is that better results will be obtained through its 
use in the ranking of occupational status than would be possible 
if only the unsupported judgment of any single individual was 
to be consulted. 

An opportunity to compare the Barr Scale with the results of 
the Army Mental Tests is afforded by the publication of a 
pamphlet by the Surgeon General's office giving the mental scores 
by occupations of 36,000 men.^ From the tables in this pamphlet 
it appears that the median score of day laborers is "C — " or 5 
on a scale of 7; and that 37^^ percent of them rank in class 6 
where the Barr Scale places them. Dr. Giles M, Ruch worked out 
the correlation (rank order) between the median scores made 
by the different occupations in the Army tests and the rank order 
assigned to the same occupations in the Barr Scale and found 
the correlation to be "r equals 0.79 with a P. E. of 0.058." This 
result would indicate that the Barr Scale is sufficiently reliable 
to be utilized for the purpose of comparing the occupations of 
fathers with the vocational ambitions of their children, 

FiNAiv Word 

The writer has endeavored to set forth as faithfully as pos- 
sible the results of the use of mental tests in the discovery of 
the mental levels of high-school pupils. Three different groups 
have been followed: the first, a group of pupils entering the 
Palo Alto High School as first-year students, and given the indi- 
vidual tests, and most of them later the military group tests; 
the second, a group of pupils representing five high schools and 
all of the pupils present in each high school on the day when 
the test, the military group tests, were given ; the third, a group 
of U. S. Veterans' Bureau trainees, admitted to Stanford Uni- 
versity as special students on the basis of scores on group tests, 
regardless of high-school preparation. The sixth- and seventh- 
year follow-up of the first group is treated in Chapter IV; the 



*Army Mental Tests. Methods, Typical Results and Practical Applica- 
tions. Washington, D. C, November 22, 1918, p. 23. 



124 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND GUIDANCE 

second group (fourth-year follow-up) is treated in Chapter VI, 
and the third group in Chapter VII. 

The long-time follow-ups on the first and second groups show 
remarkable agreement regarding the general mental level of 
those who drop out before graduation from high school, those 
who graduate from high school and those who continue their 
education in higher institutions. They agree also in supporting 
the contention that social status and the cherishing of educational 
and vocational plans of a definite nature are significant factors 
in school achievement and survival. The results of the study 
of the third group indicate that intelligence, plus a definite em- 
ployment objective, enables a mature student to overcome the 
handicap of a lack of high-school training, and to carry uni- 
versity work successfully and even with distinction. 

Since these studies were begun, seven years ago, the use of 
mental tests in the educational and vocational guidance of pupils 
in all departments of the school system has become one of the 
most discussed topics in educational literature. There is every 
indication that the movement will continue to grow. It is per- 
haps inevitable that a movement which has spread so rapidly 
should be in greatest danger of serious harm from its over- 
zealous but under-cautious advocates — from those who draw un- 
tenable conclusions from inadequate data, and proceed to adver- 
tise their new-found wisdom to a sensation-hungry world. No 
one should be permitted to apply mental tests to public school 
pupils, who has not first familiarized himself with the tests to 
be given, with the procedure as outlined and standardized by the 
author or authors of the tests, and above all with the methods 
of scoring and interpreting the results. Results obtained should 
be considered as tentative, — not in any sense absolute, and should 
be kept strictly confidential. In other words, "the coefficient of 
common sense" of the tester should be ascertained to be very 
high before he is permitted to handle tests or predicate advice 
on the results obtained. When at all possible, two different tests, 
or two batteries of the same test scale, should be used. 



MENTAL AGE N0BM8 126 

Assuming that the cautions suggested above will be observed, 
and that only thoroughly standardized tests will be employed, 
it may finally be said that: Applied by trained examiners, 
scored by expert assistants, tested against all available criteria 
for validity, individual and group mental tests are proving of 
invaluable assistance to secondary-school teachers in the task of 
giving educational and vocational advice to high-school pupils. 



^52, 



tf 







M Z 













1 '■■ v" , ^ <. ^/,. " N ' ,V C^ * 



■^^^^ - ^^^ 










^M' ."■ 






.^•■.^ 



_ -^ . Villi,, .. ^, 



.^^^' '^V 



■^ ^^^^ 






,0o 



w 



^'>c 



c\V 







"^ .<^'' J' ^^■vB,//:'^ '° "^ 



■x^' 



v\ 







^,. ^' -M$^ ^ 



a\'- 









r^^- 









Si ■ \ V 



•'^,V> A^ 



,-v./-Stv, -, V' 







.•^ft 



b O"^ = :.'^, 







^. .-^^ 



vX^ '^',0:^'^- 



/ 



V 



=§"• ^ -: 



.^' -« 



^' 



* N 



« -'•^- " .^-^ 









-' -J) 



L- 









„> A% 






^2 0' 









,rl\ '•■^- .■; 



'X'' 



';. = -^ c> 






-.'^' 






<i 




.^'-' 



-o~- 



0,." .0 



v\^^ '^'^ 















.^^^ 



i"^-^ 















r\ \ -^ ^ 







%-^^_ J^ ^^ff^ 



^\. ", ~'^. a"" 












